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which while resistant&#44; can impede the penetration of topical agents&#44; which as a consequence often have little effect&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0605"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> In addition&#44; intralesional injections in the area of the nail matrix or bed are painful and can cause complications&#44; while responses to systemic therapies are often insufficient&#46; Overall&#44; thus&#44; the treatment of nail psoriasis is challenging&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this narrative review we discuss the clinical characteristics of nail psoriasis and examine the treatments available&#46; We conducted a literature search of PubMed from the start of the database using the terms &#8220;nail psoriasis&#8221; AND &#8220;treatment OR therapy&#8221; and the names of the different treatments discussed in the manuscript&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0610"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> We reviewed all articles in English addressing the treatment of nail psoriasis as the main subject that had been published in peer-reviewed journals&#46; We included some additional articles identified by hand searching the references of review articles identified&#46; We then collected and organized relevant data and performed a narrative synthesis&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Epidemiology</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The prevalence of nail psoriasis varies widely&#44; with reported rates ranging from 6&#46;4&#37; to 81&#46;8&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0585"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#8211;4&#44;7&#8211;9</span></a> It is difficult thus to determine its true prevalence&#46; Most studies of the prevalence of nail psoriasis have been conducted within broader studies of patients with cutaneous psoriasis&#59; studies focusing on exclusive nail involvement have reported a prevalence rate of 6&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> Nail psoriasis affects male patients more frequently and the most common clinical manifestation is pitting&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> This form of psoriasis is also associated with earlier onset of cutaneous psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0625"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> According to some reports&#44; patients with cutaneous and nail psoriasis are 10&#37; more likely to have a family history of this disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> Nail involvement has also been found to correlate with psoriasis duration and severity and to be associated with an increased risk of psoriatic arthritis &#40;PsA&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> Childhood nail psoriasis has a reported prevalence of between 17&#37; and 38&#37; and most studies have found a link with more severe disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0620"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8&#44;10</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Etiology and Pathogenesis</span><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Psoriasis is a multifactorial systemic disease involving different genetic and environmental factors&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0635"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> Several alleles for susceptibility to psoriasis have been identified&#46; HLA Cw0602 is the most widely studied and accounts for 50&#37; of disease heritability&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0640"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> That said&#44; nail psoriasis is less common in carriers of this haplotype&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;12&#44;13</span></a> The genetic basis of the different clinical subtypes of psoriasis has not been fully elucidated and no clear genetic causes have been identified for nail involvement&#46; Some authors have detected a localized variant in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">IL1RN</span>&#44; which encodes the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1A&#44; which can cause nail changes&#46; It might thus have a role in the development of nail disease in patients with cutaneous psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0650"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> More recent studies&#44; however&#44; have indicated that nail and joint involvement in psoriasis might be related to tissue-specific factors&#44; such as biomechanical stress and microtrauma&#44; which would trigger the activation of aberrant innate immune responses&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0655"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15&#44;16</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Comorbidities and Associated Factors</span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Psoriatic Arthritis</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">PsA is the most common comorbidity in psoriasis&#44; with a prevalence of approximately 20&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> Patients with PsA are more likely to have nail involvement than those with cutaneous psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;17</span></a> An estimated 80&#37; to 90&#37; of patients with PsA will develop nail psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;4&#44;17</span></a></p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The association between subclinical enthesopathy and nail disease is explained by the anatomic proximity between the extensor tendon of the distal phalanx and the nail matrix&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0670"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> Most authors agree that nail involvement is predictive of enthesitis&#44; which is associated with early-stage PsA&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0670"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#8211;22</span></a> Proper diagnosis and treatment of nail psoriasis is thus important as it could potentially delay the onset of joint disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0695"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Onychomycosis</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Certain clinical features of nail psoriasis&#44; such as hyperkeratosis and onycholysis&#44; are seen in a number of nail disorders&#46; It can thus be challenging to differentiate between nail psoriasis and onychomycosis&#46; In addition&#44; an estimated 30&#37; of patients with psoriatic nail disease have concomitant onychomycosis&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0700"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> and some authors have found onychomycosis to be more common in psoriasis patients with nail involvement&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0705"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> It has been postulated that the nail deformations observed in psoriatic nails might be predisposing factors for onychomycosis and that onychomycosis might trigger the development of nail psoriasis &#40;Koebner phenomenon&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0705"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25&#44;26</span></a></p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fungal cultures are usually only performed in patients with concomitant cutaneous and nail psoriasis when obvious clinical changes are observed&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0715"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a> As onychomycosis and nail psoriasis often coexist&#44; some authors recommended checking for onychomycosis before starting a patient on psoriasis treatment&#44; especially if they need immunosuppressants&#44; as these could aggravate any existing infection&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0710"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26&#44;28</span></a> Fungal cultures could perhaps be included in clinical guidelines for the treatment and management of nail psoriasis&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0720"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> although they do have some significant limitations &#40;time and false negatives&#41;&#46; Alternative tests include direct microscopic examination with potassium chloride &#40;sensitivity of 61&#37;&#41;&#44; histologic examination &#40;88&#46;4&#37;&#41;&#44; and a combination of both &#40;94&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0725"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> PCR-based molecular diagnostic tests offer very high sensitivity &#40;97&#37;&#41; but are not yet widely available&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0730"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30&#44;31</span></a> Likewise&#44; some centers use a rapid diagnostic test based on an immunochromatographic assay that can detect <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Trichophyton</span> antigens in nail samples and offer immediate results&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0740"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Smoking</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Smoking is a known independent risk factor for psoriasis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0745"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> and its possible associations with nail psoriasis have been studied&#46; Temiz et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0750"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> recently showed that psoriasis patients were significantly more likely to have nail psoriasis when they smoked and they also reported a greater need for systemic therapy among smokers&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Clinical Presentation</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In most patients&#44; nail psoriasis appears at the same time as or after cutaneous psoriasis&#46; On occasions&#44; however&#44; it is the only manifestation of disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;35</span></a></p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The clinical presentations of nail psoriasis vary according to the affected area&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0755"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> Susceptible areas are the nail bed&#44; the nail matrix&#44; the hyponychium&#44; and the nail folds &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0695"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Clinical Features of Nail Matrix Psoriasis</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Pitting is the most common clinical feature of nail matrix psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0695"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> Pitting refers to the presence of irregular depressions in the nail plate that histologically correspond to foci of parakeratosis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0760"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> The more severe the psoriasis&#44; the more pits are seen&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0765"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a> Pitting is a characteristic feature of nail psoriasis&#44; but it also occurs in patients with alopecia areata or eczema&#59; in psoriasis&#44; however&#44; the pitting is normally deeper and more irregular&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0760"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> Other characteristic features of nail matrix psoriasis are leukonychia&#44; red spots in the lunula&#44; crumbling or complete nail plate dystrophy&#44; and trachyonychia &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0770"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Clinical Features of Nail Bed Psoriasis</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nail bed psoriasis is clinically characterized by splinter hemorrhages &#40;damaged capillaries&#41;&#44; onycholysis with a proximal yellow-orange border&#44; oil dot or salmon patch discoloration&#44; and subungual hyperkeratosis &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0770"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38&#8211;40</span></a> Hyperkeratotic skin will often acquire a pearl white or yellow color due to the accumulation of glycoproteins&#59; a green or brown color would be indicative of a secondary bacterial and&#47;or fungal infection&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0770"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a> Other clinical manifestations are onychorrhexis and Beau lines&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0770"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38&#8211;40</span></a> Paronychia or acropustulosis may be seen in patients with nail fold involvement&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Site of Involvement</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fingernails are more likely than toenails to be affected by psoriasis&#44; and the most common digits involved are the fourth finger and the first toe&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0785"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> The clinical features vary according to site of involvement&#46; Pitting is typical in fingernail psoriasis&#44; while hyperkeratosis and onycholysis are more common in toenail psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0785"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Histopathologic Findings</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The classic histopathologic findings of nail psoriasis are the same as those seen in cutaneous psoriasis and include mild to moderate hyperkeratosis&#44; foci of parakeratosis&#44; epidermal psoriasiform hyperplasia&#44; dilated tortuous capillaries in the papillary dermis&#44; and neutrophil infiltrates&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0790"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a> Spongiosis and accumulation of serum-like exudates are more common in psoriasis involving the nails&#46; Additional findings include loss of the granular layer in the hyponychium and hypergranulosis in the nail bed and nail matrix&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;42</span></a> The matrix epithelium underlying the intraungual parakeratosis tends to be unaltered&#44; but mild spongiosis with exocytosis of lymphocytes and neutrophils may be seen&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Assessment of Nail Psoriasis Severity</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nail psoriasis severity is assessed by analyzing clinical features and extent of disease&#46; A number of scales have been developed to facilitate standardized assessment&#46; The Nail Psoriasis Severity Index &#40;NAPSI&#41; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>&#41; is the most widely used scale&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0795"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a> but other options&#44; used mainly in clinical trials&#44; are the modified NAPSI and the fingernail physician global assessment&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0800"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44&#44;45</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Additional Tests</span><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Assessment of nail psoriasis is mainly clinical&#44; but it can be challenging because of overlapping symptoms with other nail disorders&#46; Additional tests to support diagnosis and follow-up are readily available in dermatology clinics&#46;</p><span id="sec0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Dermoscopy</span><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Dermoscopy is a noninvasive imaging test available to most dermatologists&#44; and its usefulness as a diagnostic and follow-up tool in nail psoriasis has been demonstrated&#46; Dermoscopy applied to nail diseases is known as onychoscopy&#46; A number of dermoscopic findings have recently been correlated with disease severity in nail psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0810"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46&#8211;48</span></a> The main findings are splinter hemorrhages&#44; pitting&#44; distal onycholysis&#44; increased density of dilated capillaries in the hyponychium and proximal fold&#44; nail plate thickening and crumbling&#44; subungual hyperkeratosis&#44; trachyonychia&#44; Beau lines &#40;horizontal grooves&#41;&#44; and oil drops&#46; Onychoscopy is particularly useful for assessing mild disease with simple onycholysis or isolated nail bed hyperkeratosis&#44; as it enables visualization of the hyponychial capillaries&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0810"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46&#44;48</span></a> In short&#44; onychoscopy is useful for diagnosis&#44; differential diagnosis &#40;checking for onychomycosis&#41;&#44; and monitoring of treatment responses&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0080" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Ultrasound</span><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">An increasing number of studies in recent years have demonstrated that ultrasound is a very useful tool for assessing nail psoriasis&#46; It is simple&#44; painless&#44; and quick&#46; Ultrasound provides a detailed view of the nail unit &#40;plate&#44; matrix&#44; bed&#44; and lateral&#44; proximal&#44; and distal folds&#41; and can also be used to assess underlying or adjacent structures&#44; such as bone and tendons&#46; Proper training in its use&#44; however&#44; is necessary&#46; High-frequency linear probes &#40;15&#8211;22<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>MHz&#41; can help detect submillimetric lesions &#40;and even subclinical changes&#41;&#46; The most common ultrasound findings in nail psoriasis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0825"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49&#8211;54</span></a> are summarized below&#46;</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nail plate changes</span>&#46; Focal hyperechoic involvement of the ventral plate&#44; with a loss of definition&#46; Surface depressions corresponding to pitting&#46; Reduced intermediate hypoechoic space with homogeneous thickening of the plate&#46; Wavy nail plate&#44; with a hyperechoic&#44; destructured appearance&#46;</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nail bed and matrix changes</span>&#46; Thickening of matrix and increased distance between the ventral nail plate and the distal phalanx&#46; A cutoff of 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm has been found to differentiate between patients with psoriasis&#47;PsA and controls with a sensitivity of 80&#37; and a specificity of 71&#37;&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Microvascularization changes</span>&#46; Doppler imaging shows increased general flow and an increased resistance index in the nail fold vessels&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0085" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Differential Diagnosis</span><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Clinical manifestations similar to those seen in nail psoriasis can be caused by a range of infectious&#44; autoimmune&#44; and idiopathic diseases and trauma&#46; A thorough clinical history and examination of all 20 nails is essential for reaching a correct diagnosis&#46; Patients should be questioned about their personal and family history of psoriasis&#44; previous episodes of arthritis or enthesitis&#44; and the possibility of repeated microtrauma&#46; The different entities that should be contemplated in the differential diagnosis are shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0015">Table 3</a>&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0755"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35&#44;48&#44;55&#44;56&#44;57</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0015"></elsevierMultimedia></span></span><span id="sec0090" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0110">Management of Nail Psoriasis</span><span id="sec0095" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0115">General Recommendations</span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Management of cutaneous and nail psoriasis has improved in recent years thanks to the development of highly effective drugs with lasting results&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0870"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">58&#44;59</span></a> Treatment and management decisions should be taken on a case-by-case basis depending on the number of nails affected&#44; the concomitant presence of cutaneous or joint disease&#44; comorbidities&#44; and impact on quality of life&#46; In general&#44; patients should be advised to keep their nails short&#44; avoid manicures and nail biting&#44; wear protective gloves for manual tasks&#44; and avoid contact with irritants&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0100" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0120">Topical Treatment</span><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Few quality studies have evaluated or compared topical treatments for nail psoriasis&#46; In general&#44; vehicles with a more oily composition &#40;creams or ointments&#41; applied under occlusion will achieve better results&#46; The topical agent should be applied to the area of the proximal fold in patients with nail matrix psoriasis &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>&#41;&#46; Nail bed manifestations should be treated by applying the product as close to the bed as possible&#44; after clipping the onycholytic nail and scraping with a curette&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0755"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> The topical treatments available are described below&#46;</p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Corticosteroids&#46;</span> There are no standardized recommendations on which topical corticosteroid regimen to use in nail psoriasis&#46; In common practice&#44; however&#44; high-potency corticosteroids are applied under occlusion for long periods of time&#46; Better outcomes have been observed for psoriasis affecting the nail matrix compared with the bed&#46; The risk of distal phalanx atrophy and disappearing digit secondary to prolonged use must be borne in mind&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0755"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35&#44;60&#8211;63</span></a></p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Vitamin D derivatives &#40;calcitriol&#44; tacalcitol&#44; calcipotriol&#41;&#46;</span> Vitamin D derivatives are effective when used as monotherapy or combined with topical corticosteroids &#40;clobetasol nail lacquer or topical betamethasone&#41;&#46; They appear to be more effective against damage to the nail bed than the matrix&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0880"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">60&#44;64&#8211;66</span></a></p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Calcineurin inhibitors &#40;tacrolimus&#41;</span>&#46; Tacrolimus has been shown to be an effective treatment for both nail bed and nail matrix psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0915"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span></a></p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Tazarotene&#46;</span> Tazarotene under occlusion appears to be effective in nail bed disease&#44; but its use may be limited by the frequent occurrence of erythema&#44; scaling&#44; irritation&#44; and paronychia&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0920"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">68&#8211;70</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0105" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0125">Intralesional Treatment</span><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Corticosteroids&#46;</span> Corticosteroids are the only intralesional treatments that have shown acceptable results in nail psoriasis&#44; and they can be injected into the nail matrix or nail bed&#46; They should be injected using a 28&#8211;30G needle and a local analgesic to minimize intra- and postprocedural pain &#40;main adverse effect&#41;&#46; The agent should preferably be injected into the dermis of the lateral nail folds using a proximal approach when treating the nail matrix and a more distal approach when treating the nail bed&#46; The most widely used regimen is an injection of approximately 0&#46;4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mL of triamcinolone acetonide at a concentration of 10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;mL&#44; although numerous protocols exist&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0755"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35&#44;71&#8211;74</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0110" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0130">Nonpharmacological Treatments</span><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A range of nonpharmacological treatments have been used for nail psoriasis and include phototherapy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0955"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">75&#8211;77</span></a> photodynamic therapy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0970"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">78</span></a> superficial radiotherapy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0975"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">79</span></a> Grenz ray therapy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0980"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">80</span></a> and laser therapy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0970"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">78&#44;81&#8211;83</span></a> These treatments are not recommended in routine clinical practice as they have shown highly variable results&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0115" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0135">Systemic Therapy</span><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Systemic agents are the treatment of choice for patients with psoriasis involving multiple nails or with nail psoriasis in addition to cutaneous or joint manifestations&#46; Few randomized clinical trials have provided evidence to support specific recommendations on the use of systemic drugs in nail psoriasis&#46; Information is available on the following drugs&#46;</p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Retinoids &#40;acitretin&#41;&#46;</span> Retinoids have shown moderate effectiveness in nail psoriasis&#44; with a 40&#37; to 50&#37; improvement in NAPSI&#46; The doses are lower than those used in cutaneous psoriasis &#40;0&#46;2&#8211;0&#46;3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg&#47;d&#41;&#46; Retinoids have a slow mechanism of action&#44; but can be used for years&#46; The most common adverse effects are cheilitis and scaling&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0960"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76&#44;84&#8211;86</span></a></p><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Methotrexate&#46;</span> Methotrexate seems to be the most useful treatment for nail matrix psoriasis&#46; It has shown moderate effectiveness&#44; with a 40&#37; to 50&#37; improvement in NAPSI&#46; The doses are the same as those used in cutaneous psoriasis&#46; Comparisons to date have consistently shown methotrexate to be less effective than biologic agents&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0960"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76&#44;84&#44;87&#44;88</span></a></p><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cyclosporine&#46;</span> Cyclosporine is useful for the treatment of both nail bed psoriasis and nail matrix psoriasis&#46; It is effective as monotherapy&#44; but produces even better results when combined with calcipotriol&#46; Its use is limited to about 12 months due to the risk of kidney damage&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0960"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76&#44;87&#44;89&#8211;91</span></a></p><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Apremilast&#46;</span> Apremilast was effective against both nail matrix psoriasis and nail bed psoriasis in clinical trials seeking authorization for the use of this drug&#59; it showed a 60&#37; improvement in NAPSI at 52 weeks&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92&#8211;95</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0120" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0140">Biologic Therapies</span><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A large number of biologic drugs have produced primary and secondary responses in nail psoriasis&#46; Response tends to be slower than with cutaneous psoriasis&#44; with visible improvements generally observed from week 12 onwards&#46; Fingernails improve sooner than toenails because of their faster growth&#46; Patients with more favorable cutaneous-joint responses also show better nail responses&#46; Nonetheless&#44; improvements in nail psoriasis following treatment with a biologic agent have not been shown to be independent of the presence or absence of PsA&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0960"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76&#44;96</span></a> The biologics that have been studied in nail psoriasis are described below&#46;</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Infliximab&#46;</span> Several studies have shown infliximab to be effective against both nail bed psoriasis and nail matrix psoriasis&#46; Patients with more severe disease achieved greater and faster improvements than those with mild disease&#46; Infliximab was also associated with improved quality of life scores&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">97&#8211;100</span></a></p><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Adalimumab&#46;</span> Multiple studies&#44; including clinical trials and cohort studies&#44; have studied the use of adalimumab in nail psoriasis&#46; The overall results have been good&#44; with 55&#37; to 95&#37; reductions in NAPSI scores&#46; The improvements were also independent of previous treatment with infliximab or etanercept&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0965"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">77&#44;101&#8211;103</span></a></p><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Etanercept&#46;</span> Etanercept has been associated with improved quality of life and reductions in NAPSI of between 50&#37; and 90&#37; in routine practice and observational studies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">103&#8211;105</span></a></p><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Ustekinumab</span>&#46; Ustekinumab is an effective treatment for nail bed and nail matrix manifestations&#44; with a 57&#37; to 97&#37; reduction in NAPSI&#46; It has also been found to improve patient quality of life&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">106&#8211;108</span></a></p><p id="par0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Secukinumab</span>&#46; According to recent results&#44; secukinumab sustained its efficacy in nail psoriasis after a period of 2&#46;5 years&#44; with mean NAPSI improvement standing around 70&#37; and sustained improvements in quality of life&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">109</span></a></p><p id="par0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Ixekizumab&#46;</span> Numerous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of ixekizumab in nail psoriasis&#44; with complete response rates &#40;100&#37; reduction in NAPSI&#41; of 55&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">110&#8211;112</span></a></p><p id="par0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Brodalumab&#46;</span> A number of studies&#44; including randomized clinical trials&#44; have reported promising results for the use of brodalumab in nail psoriasis&#44; with 64&#37; of patients achieving a NAPSI score of 0 at week 52&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">113&#44;114</span></a></p><p id="par0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Guselkumab</span>&#46; Guselkumab was authorized as a treatment for cutaneous psoriasis in Spain in 2019&#46; Few studies have analyzed its use in nail psoriasis&#44; but in the clinical trials that led its approval in cutaneous psoriasis&#44; it showed better reductions in NAPSI compared with placebo at week 16&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">115</span></a></p><p id="par0230" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Risankizumab</span>&#46; Compared with placebo&#44; risankizumab showed significantly greater improvements in NAPSI at weeks 16 and 52 in clinical trials&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">116</span></a></p><p id="par0235" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A recent network meta-analysis compared the efficacy of 6 biologics based on the results of 7 clinical trials&#46; The analysis included patients with moderate to severe psoriasis and concomitant nail psoriasis&#44; and the primary endpoint was complete resolution of nail psoriasis &#40;NAPSI&#44; modified NAPSI&#44; or Physician Global Assessment of 0&#41; at week 24&#8211;26&#46; Ixekizumab was associated with the greatest likelihood of achieving complete response &#40;46&#46;5&#37;&#41;&#44; followed by brodalumab &#40;37&#37;&#41;&#44; adalimumab &#40;28&#46;3&#37;&#41;&#44; guselkumab &#40;27&#46;7&#37;&#41;&#44; ustekinumab &#40;20&#46;8&#37;&#41;&#44; and infliximab &#40;0&#46;8&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0875"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">59</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0125" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0145">Conclusions</span><p id="par0240" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nail psoriasis correlates with more severe psoriasis&#44; earlier onset&#44; and an increased risk of PsA&#46; Accordingly&#44; it is more likely to be associated with functional impairment and reduced quality of life&#46; Its clinical presentations are highly variable&#46; Diagnosis can be challenging&#44; but ultrasound and dermoscopy provide a valuable aid in raising or confirming clinical suspicion&#46; The current spectrum of treatments is broad and includes topical&#44; intralesional&#44; systemic&#44; and biologic drugs&#46; Treatment should be tailored to each case&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0130" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0150">Authors&#8217; Contributions</span><p id="par0245" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Dr&#46; Canal-Garc&#237;a and Dr&#46; Bosch-Amate contributed equally to this article&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0135" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0155">Conflicts of Interest</span><p id="par0250" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Etiology and Pathogenesis"
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          "identificador" => "sec0020"
          "titulo" => "Comorbidities and Associated Factors"
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              "identificador" => "sec0025"
              "titulo" => "Psoriatic Arthritis"
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              "titulo" => "Onychomycosis"
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              "titulo" => "Clinical Features of Nail Matrix Psoriasis"
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              "titulo" => "Clinical Features of Nail Bed Psoriasis"
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              "titulo" => "Site of Involvement"
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              "titulo" => "Histopathologic Findings"
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              "identificador" => "sec0065"
              "titulo" => "Assessment of Nail Psoriasis Severity"
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              "titulo" => "Additional Tests"
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              "titulo" => "Differential Diagnosis"
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          "identificador" => "sec0090"
          "titulo" => "Management of Nail Psoriasis"
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            0 => array:2 [
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              "titulo" => "General Recommendations"
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              "titulo" => "Intralesional Treatment"
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              "identificador" => "sec0110"
              "titulo" => "Nonpharmacological Treatments"
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              "titulo" => "Systemic Therapy"
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              "titulo" => "Biologic Therapies"
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    "fechaRecibido" => "2021-11-07"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2022-01-15"
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            1 => "U&#241;as"
            2 => "Enfermedades de las u&#241;as"
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        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Nail involvement in psoriasis is common&#46; It is seen in up to 80&#37; of patients with psoriatic lesions and may be the only manifestation in 6&#37; of cases&#46; Nail psoriasis is correlated with more severe disease&#44; characterized by earlier onset and a higher risk of psoriatic arthritis&#46; Accordingly&#44; it can also result in significant functional impairment and reduced quality of life&#46; Psoriasis involving the nail matrix causes pitting&#44; leukonychia&#44; red lunula and nail dystrophy&#44; while nail bed involvement causes splinter hemorrhages&#44; onycholysis&#44; oil spots &#40;salmon patches&#41;&#44; and subungual hyperkeratosis&#46; Common evaluation tools are the Nail Psoriasis Severity Index &#40;NAPSI&#41;&#44; the modified NAPSI&#44; and the f-PGA &#40;Physician&#39;s Global Assessment of Fingernail Psoriasis&#41;&#46; Treatment options include topical therapy&#44; intralesional injections&#44; and systemic and biologic agents&#46; Treatment should therefore be assessed on an individualized basis according to the number of nails involved&#44; the part of the nail or nails affected&#44; and the presence of concomitant nail and&#47;or joint involvement&#46;</p></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La psoriasis ungueal puede afectar al 80&#37; de los pacientes con psoriasis cut&#225;nea y puede ser la &#250;nica manifestaci&#243;n en el 6&#37; del total&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; se correlaciona con una enfermedad psori&#225;sica m&#225;s grave&#44; con un inicio m&#225;s precoz y con una mayor probabilidad de desarrollar artritis psori&#225;sica&#46; Todo ello hace que se asocie a un importante deterioro funcional y a una disminuci&#243;n de la calidad de vida&#46; La psoriasis ungueal que afecta la matriz puede causar piqueteado&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">pitting</span>&#44; leuconiquia&#44; manchas rojas en la l&#250;nula o distrofia de la l&#225;mina&#44; mientras que la afectaci&#243;n del lecho causa hemorragias en astilla&#44; onic&#243;lisis&#44; manchas de aceite o salm&#243;n e hiperqueratosis subungueal&#46; Los m&#233;todos de evaluaci&#243;n comunes son las escalas NAPSI&#44; NAPSI modificada o f-PGA&#46; Actualmente&#44; disponemos de tratamientos t&#243;picos&#44; intralesionales&#44; sist&#233;micos y biol&#243;gicos&#44; por lo que deber&#225; individualizarse seg&#250;n el n&#250;mero de u&#241;as implicadas&#44; la zona ungueal afectada y la presencia de afectaci&#243;n cut&#225;nea y&#47;o articular&#46;</p></span>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Clinical features of nail matrix psoriasis&#46; A&#44; Pitting&#46; B&#44; Onycholysis with pseudoleukonychia&#46; C&#44; Nail dystrophy or crumbling and red spots in the lunula&#46; D&#44; Trachyonychia&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Clinical features of nail bed psoriasis&#46; A&#44; Splinter hemorrhages&#46; B&#44; Subungual hyperkeratosis&#46; C&#44; Oil drop&#46; D&#44; Onycholysis&#46;</p>"
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                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Area&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Clinical feature&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Nail matrix&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Pitting&#58; punctuate depressions in nail plateLeukonychia&#58; white discoloration of nail plateRed spots in the lunula&#58; pink-red dots in the lunulaCrumbling&#58; brittleness and disintegration of the nail plateBeau lines&#58; horizontal groovesTrachyonychia&#58; rough nails with a dull appearance due to the presence of abundant longitudinal ridges and punctuate depressions&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Nail bed&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Splinter hemorrhages&#58; linear areas of bleeding visible through the nail plateOnycholysis&#58; distal separation of the nail plate from the nail bed&#46;Oil dots&#58; irregular yellowish or salmon-colored areas&#44; also called salmon stainsSubungual hyperkeratosis&#58; accumulation of gray-white keratin between the nail bed and nail plate&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Hyponychium&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Onychorrhexis&#58; longitudinal ridging and distal splitting of nail plate&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Nail fold&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Paronychia&#58; inflammation of the periungual tissues&#46;Acropustulosis&#58; pustules that may coalesce around the nails&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Each nail is given a separate score for nail matrix psoriasis and nail bed psoriasis &#40;the presence of 1 feature is scored a maximum of 1&#41;&#46; The nail is then divided into 4 quadrants&#44; each of which is scored independently for nail matrix psoriasis &#40;score of 0&#8211;4&#41; and nail bed psoriasis &#40;score of 0&#8211;4&#41;&#46; The final score is obtained by adding up the individual scores&#46;</p>"
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                  \t\t\t\t">Pitting&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Onycholysis&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Leukonychia&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Oil drop&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Red spots in the lunula&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Splinter hemorrhages&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Nail plate crumbling&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Nail bed hyperkeratosis&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Extent of involvement of nail psoriasis &#40;in nail matrix and nail bed&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Sum of scores&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>None&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Single nail<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#8211;8&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>present in 1 of 4 quadrants&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>present in 2 of 4 quadrants&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>present in 3 of 4 quadrants&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>present in 4 of 4 quadrants&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Pitting&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Psoriasis&#58; erythematous border around the onycholytic areaIdiopathic&#58; female patients exposed to excessive moisture in this areaOnychomycosis&#58; jagged proximal border around onycholytic area with spikes&#44; opaque spots&#44; and longitudinal white&#44; yellow&#44; or brown striaeExternal cause &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; manicure&#44; hairdressing&#41;&#58; irregular border and bleeding&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Splinter hemorrhages&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Psoriasis&#58; distalTraumatic cause&#58; distal and accompanied by subungual hematomas and possible nail lossSystemic diseases &#40;endocarditis&#44; renal or pulmonary disease&#44; vasculitis&#41;&#58; proximal and painful&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Oil drop&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Quite characteristic of nail psoriasis&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Red spots in the lunula&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Quite characteristic of nail psoriasis&#44; but may be seen in alopecia areata and lichen planus&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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Review
Nail Psoriasis
Psoriasis ungueal
E. Canal-Garcíaa, X. Bosch-Amateb, I. Belinchónc,
Autor para correspondencia
belinchon_isa@gva.es

Corresponding author.
, L. Puigd
a Departamento de Dermatología, Hospital Universitari Arnau de Vilanova, Lleida, Spain
b Departamento de Dermatología, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
c Departamento de Dermatología, Hospital General Universitario de Alicante-ISABIAL-UMH, Alicante, Spain
d Departamento de Dermatología, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Clinical features of nail bed psoriasis&#46; A&#44; Splinter hemorrhages&#46; B&#44; Subungual hyperkeratosis&#46; C&#44; Oil drop&#46; D&#44; Onycholysis&#46;</p>"
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nail involvement is very common in psoriasis&#44; with prevalence rates ranging from 47&#46;4&#37; to 78&#46;3&#37; depending on the study&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0585"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#8211;3</span></a> Nail bed and nail matrix psoriasis have a wide range of clinical manifestations&#44; including pitting&#44; onycholysis&#44; subungual hyperkeratosis&#44; and nail plate discoloration&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> Severe nail disease and functional impairment can have a significant impact on patient quality of life&#46; Nail psoriasis is generally considered to be difficult to treat because the nail plate is a densely keratinized hydrophilic gel structure&#44; which while resistant&#44; can impede the penetration of topical agents&#44; which as a consequence often have little effect&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0605"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> In addition&#44; intralesional injections in the area of the nail matrix or bed are painful and can cause complications&#44; while responses to systemic therapies are often insufficient&#46; Overall&#44; thus&#44; the treatment of nail psoriasis is challenging&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this narrative review we discuss the clinical characteristics of nail psoriasis and examine the treatments available&#46; We conducted a literature search of PubMed from the start of the database using the terms &#8220;nail psoriasis&#8221; AND &#8220;treatment OR therapy&#8221; and the names of the different treatments discussed in the manuscript&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0610"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> We reviewed all articles in English addressing the treatment of nail psoriasis as the main subject that had been published in peer-reviewed journals&#46; We included some additional articles identified by hand searching the references of review articles identified&#46; We then collected and organized relevant data and performed a narrative synthesis&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Epidemiology</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The prevalence of nail psoriasis varies widely&#44; with reported rates ranging from 6&#46;4&#37; to 81&#46;8&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0585"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#8211;4&#44;7&#8211;9</span></a> It is difficult thus to determine its true prevalence&#46; Most studies of the prevalence of nail psoriasis have been conducted within broader studies of patients with cutaneous psoriasis&#59; studies focusing on exclusive nail involvement have reported a prevalence rate of 6&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> Nail psoriasis affects male patients more frequently and the most common clinical manifestation is pitting&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> This form of psoriasis is also associated with earlier onset of cutaneous psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0625"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> According to some reports&#44; patients with cutaneous and nail psoriasis are 10&#37; more likely to have a family history of this disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> Nail involvement has also been found to correlate with psoriasis duration and severity and to be associated with an increased risk of psoriatic arthritis &#40;PsA&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> Childhood nail psoriasis has a reported prevalence of between 17&#37; and 38&#37; and most studies have found a link with more severe disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0620"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8&#44;10</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Etiology and Pathogenesis</span><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Psoriasis is a multifactorial systemic disease involving different genetic and environmental factors&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0635"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> Several alleles for susceptibility to psoriasis have been identified&#46; HLA Cw0602 is the most widely studied and accounts for 50&#37; of disease heritability&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0640"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> That said&#44; nail psoriasis is less common in carriers of this haplotype&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;12&#44;13</span></a> The genetic basis of the different clinical subtypes of psoriasis has not been fully elucidated and no clear genetic causes have been identified for nail involvement&#46; Some authors have detected a localized variant in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">IL1RN</span>&#44; which encodes the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1A&#44; which can cause nail changes&#46; It might thus have a role in the development of nail disease in patients with cutaneous psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0650"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> More recent studies&#44; however&#44; have indicated that nail and joint involvement in psoriasis might be related to tissue-specific factors&#44; such as biomechanical stress and microtrauma&#44; which would trigger the activation of aberrant innate immune responses&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0655"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15&#44;16</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Comorbidities and Associated Factors</span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Psoriatic Arthritis</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">PsA is the most common comorbidity in psoriasis&#44; with a prevalence of approximately 20&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> Patients with PsA are more likely to have nail involvement than those with cutaneous psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;17</span></a> An estimated 80&#37; to 90&#37; of patients with PsA will develop nail psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;4&#44;17</span></a></p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The association between subclinical enthesopathy and nail disease is explained by the anatomic proximity between the extensor tendon of the distal phalanx and the nail matrix&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0670"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> Most authors agree that nail involvement is predictive of enthesitis&#44; which is associated with early-stage PsA&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0670"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#8211;22</span></a> Proper diagnosis and treatment of nail psoriasis is thus important as it could potentially delay the onset of joint disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0695"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Onychomycosis</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Certain clinical features of nail psoriasis&#44; such as hyperkeratosis and onycholysis&#44; are seen in a number of nail disorders&#46; It can thus be challenging to differentiate between nail psoriasis and onychomycosis&#46; In addition&#44; an estimated 30&#37; of patients with psoriatic nail disease have concomitant onychomycosis&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0700"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> and some authors have found onychomycosis to be more common in psoriasis patients with nail involvement&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0705"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> It has been postulated that the nail deformations observed in psoriatic nails might be predisposing factors for onychomycosis and that onychomycosis might trigger the development of nail psoriasis &#40;Koebner phenomenon&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0705"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25&#44;26</span></a></p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fungal cultures are usually only performed in patients with concomitant cutaneous and nail psoriasis when obvious clinical changes are observed&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0715"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a> As onychomycosis and nail psoriasis often coexist&#44; some authors recommended checking for onychomycosis before starting a patient on psoriasis treatment&#44; especially if they need immunosuppressants&#44; as these could aggravate any existing infection&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0710"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26&#44;28</span></a> Fungal cultures could perhaps be included in clinical guidelines for the treatment and management of nail psoriasis&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0720"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> although they do have some significant limitations &#40;time and false negatives&#41;&#46; Alternative tests include direct microscopic examination with potassium chloride &#40;sensitivity of 61&#37;&#41;&#44; histologic examination &#40;88&#46;4&#37;&#41;&#44; and a combination of both &#40;94&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0725"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> PCR-based molecular diagnostic tests offer very high sensitivity &#40;97&#37;&#41; but are not yet widely available&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0730"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30&#44;31</span></a> Likewise&#44; some centers use a rapid diagnostic test based on an immunochromatographic assay that can detect <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Trichophyton</span> antigens in nail samples and offer immediate results&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0740"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Smoking</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Smoking is a known independent risk factor for psoriasis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0745"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> and its possible associations with nail psoriasis have been studied&#46; Temiz et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0750"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> recently showed that psoriasis patients were significantly more likely to have nail psoriasis when they smoked and they also reported a greater need for systemic therapy among smokers&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Clinical Presentation</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In most patients&#44; nail psoriasis appears at the same time as or after cutaneous psoriasis&#46; On occasions&#44; however&#44; it is the only manifestation of disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;35</span></a></p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The clinical presentations of nail psoriasis vary according to the affected area&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0755"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> Susceptible areas are the nail bed&#44; the nail matrix&#44; the hyponychium&#44; and the nail folds &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0695"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Clinical Features of Nail Matrix Psoriasis</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Pitting is the most common clinical feature of nail matrix psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0695"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> Pitting refers to the presence of irregular depressions in the nail plate that histologically correspond to foci of parakeratosis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0760"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> The more severe the psoriasis&#44; the more pits are seen&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0765"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a> Pitting is a characteristic feature of nail psoriasis&#44; but it also occurs in patients with alopecia areata or eczema&#59; in psoriasis&#44; however&#44; the pitting is normally deeper and more irregular&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0760"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> Other characteristic features of nail matrix psoriasis are leukonychia&#44; red spots in the lunula&#44; crumbling or complete nail plate dystrophy&#44; and trachyonychia &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0770"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Clinical Features of Nail Bed Psoriasis</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nail bed psoriasis is clinically characterized by splinter hemorrhages &#40;damaged capillaries&#41;&#44; onycholysis with a proximal yellow-orange border&#44; oil dot or salmon patch discoloration&#44; and subungual hyperkeratosis &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0770"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38&#8211;40</span></a> Hyperkeratotic skin will often acquire a pearl white or yellow color due to the accumulation of glycoproteins&#59; a green or brown color would be indicative of a secondary bacterial and&#47;or fungal infection&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0770"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a> Other clinical manifestations are onychorrhexis and Beau lines&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0770"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38&#8211;40</span></a> Paronychia or acropustulosis may be seen in patients with nail fold involvement&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Site of Involvement</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fingernails are more likely than toenails to be affected by psoriasis&#44; and the most common digits involved are the fourth finger and the first toe&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0785"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> The clinical features vary according to site of involvement&#46; Pitting is typical in fingernail psoriasis&#44; while hyperkeratosis and onycholysis are more common in toenail psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0785"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Histopathologic Findings</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The classic histopathologic findings of nail psoriasis are the same as those seen in cutaneous psoriasis and include mild to moderate hyperkeratosis&#44; foci of parakeratosis&#44; epidermal psoriasiform hyperplasia&#44; dilated tortuous capillaries in the papillary dermis&#44; and neutrophil infiltrates&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0790"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a> Spongiosis and accumulation of serum-like exudates are more common in psoriasis involving the nails&#46; Additional findings include loss of the granular layer in the hyponychium and hypergranulosis in the nail bed and nail matrix&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;42</span></a> The matrix epithelium underlying the intraungual parakeratosis tends to be unaltered&#44; but mild spongiosis with exocytosis of lymphocytes and neutrophils may be seen&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Assessment of Nail Psoriasis Severity</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nail psoriasis severity is assessed by analyzing clinical features and extent of disease&#46; A number of scales have been developed to facilitate standardized assessment&#46; The Nail Psoriasis Severity Index &#40;NAPSI&#41; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>&#41; is the most widely used scale&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0795"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a> but other options&#44; used mainly in clinical trials&#44; are the modified NAPSI and the fingernail physician global assessment&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0800"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44&#44;45</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Additional Tests</span><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Assessment of nail psoriasis is mainly clinical&#44; but it can be challenging because of overlapping symptoms with other nail disorders&#46; Additional tests to support diagnosis and follow-up are readily available in dermatology clinics&#46;</p><span id="sec0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Dermoscopy</span><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Dermoscopy is a noninvasive imaging test available to most dermatologists&#44; and its usefulness as a diagnostic and follow-up tool in nail psoriasis has been demonstrated&#46; Dermoscopy applied to nail diseases is known as onychoscopy&#46; A number of dermoscopic findings have recently been correlated with disease severity in nail psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0810"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46&#8211;48</span></a> The main findings are splinter hemorrhages&#44; pitting&#44; distal onycholysis&#44; increased density of dilated capillaries in the hyponychium and proximal fold&#44; nail plate thickening and crumbling&#44; subungual hyperkeratosis&#44; trachyonychia&#44; Beau lines &#40;horizontal grooves&#41;&#44; and oil drops&#46; Onychoscopy is particularly useful for assessing mild disease with simple onycholysis or isolated nail bed hyperkeratosis&#44; as it enables visualization of the hyponychial capillaries&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0810"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46&#44;48</span></a> In short&#44; onychoscopy is useful for diagnosis&#44; differential diagnosis &#40;checking for onychomycosis&#41;&#44; and monitoring of treatment responses&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0080" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Ultrasound</span><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">An increasing number of studies in recent years have demonstrated that ultrasound is a very useful tool for assessing nail psoriasis&#46; It is simple&#44; painless&#44; and quick&#46; Ultrasound provides a detailed view of the nail unit &#40;plate&#44; matrix&#44; bed&#44; and lateral&#44; proximal&#44; and distal folds&#41; and can also be used to assess underlying or adjacent structures&#44; such as bone and tendons&#46; Proper training in its use&#44; however&#44; is necessary&#46; High-frequency linear probes &#40;15&#8211;22<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>MHz&#41; can help detect submillimetric lesions &#40;and even subclinical changes&#41;&#46; The most common ultrasound findings in nail psoriasis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0825"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49&#8211;54</span></a> are summarized below&#46;</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nail plate changes</span>&#46; Focal hyperechoic involvement of the ventral plate&#44; with a loss of definition&#46; Surface depressions corresponding to pitting&#46; Reduced intermediate hypoechoic space with homogeneous thickening of the plate&#46; Wavy nail plate&#44; with a hyperechoic&#44; destructured appearance&#46;</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nail bed and matrix changes</span>&#46; Thickening of matrix and increased distance between the ventral nail plate and the distal phalanx&#46; A cutoff of 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm has been found to differentiate between patients with psoriasis&#47;PsA and controls with a sensitivity of 80&#37; and a specificity of 71&#37;&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Microvascularization changes</span>&#46; Doppler imaging shows increased general flow and an increased resistance index in the nail fold vessels&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0085" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Differential Diagnosis</span><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Clinical manifestations similar to those seen in nail psoriasis can be caused by a range of infectious&#44; autoimmune&#44; and idiopathic diseases and trauma&#46; A thorough clinical history and examination of all 20 nails is essential for reaching a correct diagnosis&#46; Patients should be questioned about their personal and family history of psoriasis&#44; previous episodes of arthritis or enthesitis&#44; and the possibility of repeated microtrauma&#46; The different entities that should be contemplated in the differential diagnosis are shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0015">Table 3</a>&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0755"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35&#44;48&#44;55&#44;56&#44;57</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0015"></elsevierMultimedia></span></span><span id="sec0090" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0110">Management of Nail Psoriasis</span><span id="sec0095" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0115">General Recommendations</span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Management of cutaneous and nail psoriasis has improved in recent years thanks to the development of highly effective drugs with lasting results&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0870"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">58&#44;59</span></a> Treatment and management decisions should be taken on a case-by-case basis depending on the number of nails affected&#44; the concomitant presence of cutaneous or joint disease&#44; comorbidities&#44; and impact on quality of life&#46; In general&#44; patients should be advised to keep their nails short&#44; avoid manicures and nail biting&#44; wear protective gloves for manual tasks&#44; and avoid contact with irritants&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0100" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0120">Topical Treatment</span><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Few quality studies have evaluated or compared topical treatments for nail psoriasis&#46; In general&#44; vehicles with a more oily composition &#40;creams or ointments&#41; applied under occlusion will achieve better results&#46; The topical agent should be applied to the area of the proximal fold in patients with nail matrix psoriasis &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>&#41;&#46; Nail bed manifestations should be treated by applying the product as close to the bed as possible&#44; after clipping the onycholytic nail and scraping with a curette&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0755"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> The topical treatments available are described below&#46;</p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Corticosteroids&#46;</span> There are no standardized recommendations on which topical corticosteroid regimen to use in nail psoriasis&#46; In common practice&#44; however&#44; high-potency corticosteroids are applied under occlusion for long periods of time&#46; Better outcomes have been observed for psoriasis affecting the nail matrix compared with the bed&#46; The risk of distal phalanx atrophy and disappearing digit secondary to prolonged use must be borne in mind&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0755"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35&#44;60&#8211;63</span></a></p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Vitamin D derivatives &#40;calcitriol&#44; tacalcitol&#44; calcipotriol&#41;&#46;</span> Vitamin D derivatives are effective when used as monotherapy or combined with topical corticosteroids &#40;clobetasol nail lacquer or topical betamethasone&#41;&#46; They appear to be more effective against damage to the nail bed than the matrix&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0880"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">60&#44;64&#8211;66</span></a></p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Calcineurin inhibitors &#40;tacrolimus&#41;</span>&#46; Tacrolimus has been shown to be an effective treatment for both nail bed and nail matrix psoriasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0915"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span></a></p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Tazarotene&#46;</span> Tazarotene under occlusion appears to be effective in nail bed disease&#44; but its use may be limited by the frequent occurrence of erythema&#44; scaling&#44; irritation&#44; and paronychia&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0920"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">68&#8211;70</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0105" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0125">Intralesional Treatment</span><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Corticosteroids&#46;</span> Corticosteroids are the only intralesional treatments that have shown acceptable results in nail psoriasis&#44; and they can be injected into the nail matrix or nail bed&#46; They should be injected using a 28&#8211;30G needle and a local analgesic to minimize intra- and postprocedural pain &#40;main adverse effect&#41;&#46; The agent should preferably be injected into the dermis of the lateral nail folds using a proximal approach when treating the nail matrix and a more distal approach when treating the nail bed&#46; The most widely used regimen is an injection of approximately 0&#46;4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mL of triamcinolone acetonide at a concentration of 10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;mL&#44; although numerous protocols exist&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0755"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35&#44;71&#8211;74</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0110" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0130">Nonpharmacological Treatments</span><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A range of nonpharmacological treatments have been used for nail psoriasis and include phototherapy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0955"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">75&#8211;77</span></a> photodynamic therapy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0970"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">78</span></a> superficial radiotherapy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0975"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">79</span></a> Grenz ray therapy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0980"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">80</span></a> and laser therapy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0970"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">78&#44;81&#8211;83</span></a> These treatments are not recommended in routine clinical practice as they have shown highly variable results&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0115" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0135">Systemic Therapy</span><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Systemic agents are the treatment of choice for patients with psoriasis involving multiple nails or with nail psoriasis in addition to cutaneous or joint manifestations&#46; Few randomized clinical trials have provided evidence to support specific recommendations on the use of systemic drugs in nail psoriasis&#46; Information is available on the following drugs&#46;</p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Retinoids &#40;acitretin&#41;&#46;</span> Retinoids have shown moderate effectiveness in nail psoriasis&#44; with a 40&#37; to 50&#37; improvement in NAPSI&#46; The doses are lower than those used in cutaneous psoriasis &#40;0&#46;2&#8211;0&#46;3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg&#47;d&#41;&#46; Retinoids have a slow mechanism of action&#44; but can be used for years&#46; The most common adverse effects are cheilitis and scaling&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0960"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76&#44;84&#8211;86</span></a></p><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Methotrexate&#46;</span> Methotrexate seems to be the most useful treatment for nail matrix psoriasis&#46; It has shown moderate effectiveness&#44; with a 40&#37; to 50&#37; improvement in NAPSI&#46; The doses are the same as those used in cutaneous psoriasis&#46; Comparisons to date have consistently shown methotrexate to be less effective than biologic agents&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0960"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76&#44;84&#44;87&#44;88</span></a></p><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cyclosporine&#46;</span> Cyclosporine is useful for the treatment of both nail bed psoriasis and nail matrix psoriasis&#46; It is effective as monotherapy&#44; but produces even better results when combined with calcipotriol&#46; Its use is limited to about 12 months due to the risk of kidney damage&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0960"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76&#44;87&#44;89&#8211;91</span></a></p><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Apremilast&#46;</span> Apremilast was effective against both nail matrix psoriasis and nail bed psoriasis in clinical trials seeking authorization for the use of this drug&#59; it showed a 60&#37; improvement in NAPSI at 52 weeks&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92&#8211;95</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0120" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0140">Biologic Therapies</span><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A large number of biologic drugs have produced primary and secondary responses in nail psoriasis&#46; Response tends to be slower than with cutaneous psoriasis&#44; with visible improvements generally observed from week 12 onwards&#46; Fingernails improve sooner than toenails because of their faster growth&#46; Patients with more favorable cutaneous-joint responses also show better nail responses&#46; Nonetheless&#44; improvements in nail psoriasis following treatment with a biologic agent have not been shown to be independent of the presence or absence of PsA&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0960"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76&#44;96</span></a> The biologics that have been studied in nail psoriasis are described below&#46;</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Infliximab&#46;</span> Several studies have shown infliximab to be effective against both nail bed psoriasis and nail matrix psoriasis&#46; Patients with more severe disease achieved greater and faster improvements than those with mild disease&#46; Infliximab was also associated with improved quality of life scores&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">97&#8211;100</span></a></p><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Adalimumab&#46;</span> Multiple studies&#44; including clinical trials and cohort studies&#44; have studied the use of adalimumab in nail psoriasis&#46; The overall results have been good&#44; with 55&#37; to 95&#37; reductions in NAPSI scores&#46; The improvements were also independent of previous treatment with infliximab or etanercept&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0965"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">77&#44;101&#8211;103</span></a></p><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Etanercept&#46;</span> Etanercept has been associated with improved quality of life and reductions in NAPSI of between 50&#37; and 90&#37; in routine practice and observational studies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">103&#8211;105</span></a></p><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Ustekinumab</span>&#46; Ustekinumab is an effective treatment for nail bed and nail matrix manifestations&#44; with a 57&#37; to 97&#37; reduction in NAPSI&#46; It has also been found to improve patient quality of life&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">106&#8211;108</span></a></p><p id="par0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Secukinumab</span>&#46; According to recent results&#44; secukinumab sustained its efficacy in nail psoriasis after a period of 2&#46;5 years&#44; with mean NAPSI improvement standing around 70&#37; and sustained improvements in quality of life&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">109</span></a></p><p id="par0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Ixekizumab&#46;</span> Numerous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of ixekizumab in nail psoriasis&#44; with complete response rates &#40;100&#37; reduction in NAPSI&#41; of 55&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">110&#8211;112</span></a></p><p id="par0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Brodalumab&#46;</span> A number of studies&#44; including randomized clinical trials&#44; have reported promising results for the use of brodalumab in nail psoriasis&#44; with 64&#37; of patients achieving a NAPSI score of 0 at week 52&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">113&#44;114</span></a></p><p id="par0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Guselkumab</span>&#46; Guselkumab was authorized as a treatment for cutaneous psoriasis in Spain in 2019&#46; Few studies have analyzed its use in nail psoriasis&#44; but in the clinical trials that led its approval in cutaneous psoriasis&#44; it showed better reductions in NAPSI compared with placebo at week 16&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">115</span></a></p><p id="par0230" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Risankizumab</span>&#46; Compared with placebo&#44; risankizumab showed significantly greater improvements in NAPSI at weeks 16 and 52 in clinical trials&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">116</span></a></p><p id="par0235" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A recent network meta-analysis compared the efficacy of 6 biologics based on the results of 7 clinical trials&#46; The analysis included patients with moderate to severe psoriasis and concomitant nail psoriasis&#44; and the primary endpoint was complete resolution of nail psoriasis &#40;NAPSI&#44; modified NAPSI&#44; or Physician Global Assessment of 0&#41; at week 24&#8211;26&#46; Ixekizumab was associated with the greatest likelihood of achieving complete response &#40;46&#46;5&#37;&#41;&#44; followed by brodalumab &#40;37&#37;&#41;&#44; adalimumab &#40;28&#46;3&#37;&#41;&#44; guselkumab &#40;27&#46;7&#37;&#41;&#44; ustekinumab &#40;20&#46;8&#37;&#41;&#44; and infliximab &#40;0&#46;8&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0875"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">59</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0125" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0145">Conclusions</span><p id="par0240" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nail psoriasis correlates with more severe psoriasis&#44; earlier onset&#44; and an increased risk of PsA&#46; Accordingly&#44; it is more likely to be associated with functional impairment and reduced quality of life&#46; Its clinical presentations are highly variable&#46; Diagnosis can be challenging&#44; but ultrasound and dermoscopy provide a valuable aid in raising or confirming clinical suspicion&#46; The current spectrum of treatments is broad and includes topical&#44; intralesional&#44; systemic&#44; and biologic drugs&#46; Treatment should be tailored to each case&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0130" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0150">Authors&#8217; Contributions</span><p id="par0245" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Dr&#46; Canal-Garc&#237;a and Dr&#46; Bosch-Amate contributed equally to this article&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0135" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0155">Conflicts of Interest</span><p id="par0250" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Etiology and Pathogenesis"
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          "titulo" => "Comorbidities and Associated Factors"
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              "titulo" => "Psoriatic Arthritis"
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              "titulo" => "Onychomycosis"
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              "titulo" => "Clinical Features of Nail Matrix Psoriasis"
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              "titulo" => "Clinical Features of Nail Bed Psoriasis"
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              "titulo" => "Site of Involvement"
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              "titulo" => "Assessment of Nail Psoriasis Severity"
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          "titulo" => "Management of Nail Psoriasis"
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    "fechaAceptado" => "2022-01-15"
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            1 => "U&#241;as"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Nail involvement in psoriasis is common&#46; It is seen in up to 80&#37; of patients with psoriatic lesions and may be the only manifestation in 6&#37; of cases&#46; Nail psoriasis is correlated with more severe disease&#44; characterized by earlier onset and a higher risk of psoriatic arthritis&#46; Accordingly&#44; it can also result in significant functional impairment and reduced quality of life&#46; Psoriasis involving the nail matrix causes pitting&#44; leukonychia&#44; red lunula and nail dystrophy&#44; while nail bed involvement causes splinter hemorrhages&#44; onycholysis&#44; oil spots &#40;salmon patches&#41;&#44; and subungual hyperkeratosis&#46; Common evaluation tools are the Nail Psoriasis Severity Index &#40;NAPSI&#41;&#44; the modified NAPSI&#44; and the f-PGA &#40;Physician&#39;s Global Assessment of Fingernail Psoriasis&#41;&#46; Treatment options include topical therapy&#44; intralesional injections&#44; and systemic and biologic agents&#46; Treatment should therefore be assessed on an individualized basis according to the number of nails involved&#44; the part of the nail or nails affected&#44; and the presence of concomitant nail and&#47;or joint involvement&#46;</p></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La psoriasis ungueal puede afectar al 80&#37; de los pacientes con psoriasis cut&#225;nea y puede ser la &#250;nica manifestaci&#243;n en el 6&#37; del total&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; se correlaciona con una enfermedad psori&#225;sica m&#225;s grave&#44; con un inicio m&#225;s precoz y con una mayor probabilidad de desarrollar artritis psori&#225;sica&#46; Todo ello hace que se asocie a un importante deterioro funcional y a una disminuci&#243;n de la calidad de vida&#46; La psoriasis ungueal que afecta la matriz puede causar piqueteado&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">pitting</span>&#44; leuconiquia&#44; manchas rojas en la l&#250;nula o distrofia de la l&#225;mina&#44; mientras que la afectaci&#243;n del lecho causa hemorragias en astilla&#44; onic&#243;lisis&#44; manchas de aceite o salm&#243;n e hiperqueratosis subungueal&#46; Los m&#233;todos de evaluaci&#243;n comunes son las escalas NAPSI&#44; NAPSI modificada o f-PGA&#46; Actualmente&#44; disponemos de tratamientos t&#243;picos&#44; intralesionales&#44; sist&#233;micos y biol&#243;gicos&#44; por lo que deber&#225; individualizarse seg&#250;n el n&#250;mero de u&#241;as implicadas&#44; la zona ungueal afectada y la presencia de afectaci&#243;n cut&#225;nea y&#47;o articular&#46;</p></span>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Clinical features of nail matrix psoriasis&#46; A&#44; Pitting&#46; B&#44; Onycholysis with pseudoleukonychia&#46; C&#44; Nail dystrophy or crumbling and red spots in the lunula&#46; D&#44; Trachyonychia&#46;</p>"
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                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Area&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Clinical feature&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Nail matrix&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Pitting&#58; punctuate depressions in nail plateLeukonychia&#58; white discoloration of nail plateRed spots in the lunula&#58; pink-red dots in the lunulaCrumbling&#58; brittleness and disintegration of the nail plateBeau lines&#58; horizontal groovesTrachyonychia&#58; rough nails with a dull appearance due to the presence of abundant longitudinal ridges and punctuate depressions&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Nail bed&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Splinter hemorrhages&#58; linear areas of bleeding visible through the nail plateOnycholysis&#58; distal separation of the nail plate from the nail bed&#46;Oil dots&#58; irregular yellowish or salmon-colored areas&#44; also called salmon stainsSubungual hyperkeratosis&#58; accumulation of gray-white keratin between the nail bed and nail plate&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Hyponychium&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Onychorrhexis&#58; longitudinal ridging and distal splitting of nail plate&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Nail fold&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Paronychia&#58; inflammation of the periungual tissues&#46;Acropustulosis&#58; pustules that may coalesce around the nails&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Description of Clinical Features of Nail Psoriasis According to Affected Area&#46;</p>"
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        "tabla" => array:2 [
          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Each nail is given a separate score for nail matrix psoriasis and nail bed psoriasis &#40;the presence of 1 feature is scored a maximum of 1&#41;&#46; The nail is then divided into 4 quadrants&#44; each of which is scored independently for nail matrix psoriasis &#40;score of 0&#8211;4&#41; and nail bed psoriasis &#40;score of 0&#8211;4&#41;&#46; The final score is obtained by adding up the individual scores&#46;</p>"
          "tablatextoimagen" => array:2 [
            0 => array:1 [
              "tabla" => array:1 [
                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Nail matrix psoriasis &#40;0 or 1&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Nail bed psoriasis &#40;0 or 1&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Pitting&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Onycholysis&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Leukonychia&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Oil drop&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Red spots in the lunula&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Splinter hemorrhages&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Nail plate crumbling&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Nail bed hyperkeratosis&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
              ]
            ]
            1 => array:1 [
              "tabla" => array:1 [
                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Extent of involvement of nail psoriasis &#40;in nail matrix and nail bed&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Sum of scores&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>None&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Single nail<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#8211;8&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>present in 1 of 4 quadrants&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">All fingernails<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#8211;80&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>present in 2 of 4 quadrants&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">All toenails<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#8211;80&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>present in 3 of 4 quadrants&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Total NAPSI score<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#8211;160&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>present in 4 of 4 quadrants&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Nail Psoriasis Severity Index &#40;NAPSI&#41;&#46;</p>"
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        "etiqueta" => "Table 3"
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        "tabla" => array:1 [
          "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [
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              "tabla" => array:1 [
                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Clinical feature&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Differential diagnosis and diagnostic clues&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Pitting&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Psoriasis&#58; patient younger than 20 y and deep depressionsAlopecia areata&#58; small&#44; superficial&#44; regular depressionsEczema&#58; thick&#44; irregular depressions associated with horizontal groovesIdiopathic&#58; isolated depressions&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Onycholysis&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Psoriasis&#58; erythematous border around the onycholytic areaIdiopathic&#58; female patients exposed to excessive moisture in this areaOnychomycosis&#58; jagged proximal border around onycholytic area with spikes&#44; opaque spots&#44; and longitudinal white&#44; yellow&#44; or brown striaeExternal cause &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; manicure&#44; hairdressing&#41;&#58; irregular border and bleeding&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Subungual hyperkeratosis&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Psoriasis&#58; white-silver discolorationOnychomycosis&#58; accompanied by longitudinal striae and altered ventral area of the distal nail plateEczema&#58; accompanied by pulpitis and usually affects the first 3 fingers of the dominant hand&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Splinter hemorrhages&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Psoriasis&#58; distalTraumatic cause&#58; distal and accompanied by subungual hematomas and possible nail lossSystemic diseases &#40;endocarditis&#44; renal or pulmonary disease&#44; vasculitis&#41;&#58; proximal and painful&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Oil drop&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Quite characteristic of nail psoriasis&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Red spots in the lunula&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Quite characteristic of nail psoriasis&#44; but may be seen in alopecia areata and lichen planus&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Main Entities to Consider in the Differential Diagnosis According to Clinical Features&#46;</p>"
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    ]
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      "titulo" => "References"
      "seccion" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
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          "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:116 [
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                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
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                  "host" => array:1 [
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