Dermatitis Artefacta: A Review | Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas

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Rodríguez Pichardo, B. García Bravo" "autores" => array:2 [ 0 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "A." "apellidos" => "Rodríguez Pichardo" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "arodriguezpi@aedv.es" ] "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "¿" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "B." "apellidos" => "García Bravo" ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "entidad" => "Departamento de Dermatología, Hospital Universitario Virgen Macarena, Sevilla, Spain" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Dermatitis artefacta: revisión" ] ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 1141 "Ancho" => 2670 "Tamanyo" => 155040 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Distribution by sex of various clinical forms of dermatitis artefacta." ] ] ] "textoCompleto" => "IntroductionThe nosological position of dermatitis artefacta (DA) is clear in the numerous classification schemes of skin conditions linked to mental disorders,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005">1–6</a> in which it is invariably classified as a manifestation of a primary psychiatric disorder. While the Vienna Diagnoses Schedule for Psychodermatological Disorders is probably the most complete and comprehensive classification published to date,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035">7</a> it is of little practical use for dermatologists who do not work in the field of psychodermatology. It may therefore be preferable to use Gupta's<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020">4</a> classification of psychodermatoses (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>), which is more didactic as it is based on the current concepts of psychiatric disease defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040">8</a><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia>The term dermatitis artefacta is only used to refer to the condition in which skin lesions appear in a secret and mysterious way while the patient denies all responsibility for their production. In DA, the patient produces skin lesions to satisfy a psychological need, often a desire to receive medical treatment.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045">9</a> Malingerers also deny responsibility for producing the signs and symptoms of their disease, but they do so for easy-to-discover reasons, such as financial gain or a lawsuit. Munchausen syndrome sometimes includes skin involvement,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045">9</a> generally DA, but in that setting the skin involvement is just 1 element in a broad spectrum of conditions affecting other organs<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050">10</a> and will be associated with repeated hospital admissions, which the patient tries to conceal while demanding medication and exploratory tests. Unlike DA, Munchausen syndrome is more common in men than in women. It is not unusual for DA to occur following treatment for another condition that brought the patient into contact with the hospital environment.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045">9</a>DefinitionDA is defined as any condition involving self-inflicted skin lesions for which the patient denies all responsibility.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0055">11,12</a> However, some authors consider that the nosological definition of DA should specifically exclude cases in which a rational motive exists for the self-infliction of lesions, thereby excluding malingerers.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065">13</a> Another essential characteristic of DA is that the patients conceal their role in producing the signs of their condition; this concealment is what differentiates DA from other self-inflicted dermatoses, such as self-mutilations by psychotic patients, neurotic excoriation, and trichotillomania.EpidemiologySince DA is rare in routine dermatological practice, the literature contains few case series. Most authors have described isolated clinical cases of particular interest to specialists either because of the diagnostic challenges involved or the severity of the clinical presentation. However, it is believed that up to 5% of medical visits may relate to factitious disease, and such cases are not only observed in dermatology but also encountered by internal medicine, ophthalmology, endocrinology, and ear nose and throat specialists.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060">12,14</a> Owing to the ease with which it can be damaged, the integrumentary system is the organ that is most often the object of self-inflicted lesions. This was shown by a study of 31 patients who presented with factitious conditions in a general hospital<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070">14</a>; in that study there were 13 cases of DA, 12 cases of simulated fever, 3 of self-inflicted bleeding, 1 of polyuria-polydipsia syndrome, 1 of hypoglycemia, and 1 of hyperthyroidism.Few series provide data that can be used to compare the relative incidence of DA and other psychodermatologic disorders. In a 3-year study carried out in Iran, 178 patients were diagnosed with various psychodermatologic disorders<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075">15</a>: 128 neurotic excoriations (71.9%), 22 trichotillomania (12.4%), 16 delusional parasitosis (9%), and 12 DA (6.7%). Women outnumbered men in all of these diagnoses except delusional parasitosis, which was more frequent among men. DA was the least common diagnosis. In a study of 35 patients with dermatological disorders of strictly psychological origin, 8 patients had DA, 8 had delusional parasitosis, and 19 had various dysmorphic disorders.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080">16</a>One of the first case series of DA was published by Azúa in 1909.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085">17</a> After studying the cases of 4 women who had been diagnosed with “hysterical gangrene”, he confirmed the hysterical origin in 1 case but redefined the other 3 as self-inflicted lesions. One review of 59 articles on DA included 130 patients (116 women and 14 men).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090">18</a> A retrospective study in Denmark covering 20 years included 57 patients with a diagnosis of DA.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095">19</a> That group consisted largely of women (74%), with a female-to-male ratio of 2.8:1; the median age was 39 years (range, 12-86). A review of the records of a French dermatology department over a 15-year period identified 31 patients with a diagnosis of DA<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100">20</a>; 23 of the patients were women (mean age, 32.4 years) and 8 were men (mean age, 23.7 years). Our series of patients diagnosed between 1976 and 2006 included 201 patients, with a clear preponderance of women (female-to-male ratio, 3.1:1) and mean age overall of 31.2 years.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005">1,21</a> Other interesting characteristics observed in our series were the low or nonexistent skill level, low income, and low cultural level of the patients and the higher proportion of single people.In children, DA is more common among girls than boys, as shown by a Mexican series of pediatric patients covering a period of 20 years, which included 25 girls and only 4 boys.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110">22</a> Similarly, an Australian study covering a 15-year period included 24 girls and only 8 boys.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115">23</a>DA can appear at any age, but the incidence is highest around 20 years of age. In many cases onset is preceded by a period of psychosocial stress, which is generally easily identified, such as the psychological disturbance that produced acne symptoms in an adolescent who injured his skin with a blister agent.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120">24</a> It is not unusual to find a connection with the hospital setting in these patients, who may be nursing aides, nurses, relatives of physicians, or individuals who have had prolonged diseases in childhood<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015">3</a> or who have been affected by the death of a family member.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045">9</a>In summary, we can say that DA is more common among females and<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005">1,2</a> in early adulthood and that a high proportion of those affected have a low social and cultural level.Clinical FeaturesDA presents in a great variety of clinical forms (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig. 1</a>) depending on the patient's creativity and the method used to produce the lesion.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060">12,25</a> The most common presentations are as follows:<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005">1.Excoriations. Excoriations are the most easily diagnosed factitious lesions. They are usually linear (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig. 2</a>) and are most often inflicted using the fingernails (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig. 3</a>) although a variety of sharp objects may also be used (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig. 4</a>). Distinguishing between DA and neurotic excoriations can sometimes be difficult, but patients who have the latter condition recognize that they have caused the lesions. Excoriations are highly susceptible to infection and an indicative finding is the absence of itching before the onset of the lesion.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130">26</a><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia>Excoriations are a common clinical form of DA because the lesions are easy to inflict; in our case series they were observed in 52 (25.8%) of 201 patients and were more common in women (28.4%) than in men (17.7%).</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010">2.Ulcers. Ulcers are the most common lesions in most series. They are found either in the early stages of development or after resolution, when they take the form of an eschar (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">Fig. 5</a>). The morphology of these ulcers tends to be odd,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">12</a> either because they have perfectly regular borders or because they have an irregular shape that includes linear segments (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">Fig. 6</a>), acute and obtuse angles, triangular forms, star shapes etc. Linear lesions that extend outwards from a primary lesion are also observed (the drip sign). Sometimes, clearly ulcerated lesions appear together with other lesions that are either incompletely executed or caused by splashes of the caustic agent used to produce the ulcers. Scars from past or old injuries may also be observed. Old ulcerations that have been subjected to repeated irritation or modified by multiple treatments exhibit characteristics of torpidity (sclerosis, atrophy), and underlying osteitis or necrosis caused by secondary infections is sometimes present.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130">26</a> Patients may also have scars with an irregular geometric shape.<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0030"></elsevierMultimedia>Litmus paper can be used to test the alkalinity or acidity of unexplained ulcers as the results may indicate the use of a chemical product as a probable cause.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060">12,27</a> Repeated failure of skin grafts, usually due to vascular problems, should raise the suspicion of interference by the patient, especially when the only organism found in cultures is fecal flora (a finding observed in 4 of our cases).In our series, a clinical presentation described as an ulcer was observed in 52 patients (25.8%), making it, together with the category of excoriations, the leading manifestation. Ulcers were more common among males (31.1%) than females (23.8%). In a study of patients with DA affecting the breast, excoriations and ulcers were found to be equally common (33.33%).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095">19</a></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015">3.Blisters. Self-inflicted lesions sometimes take the form of blisters. The appearance of these lesions may be odd; they may be elongated (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig. 7</a>), angular, polygonal, or occasionally very large, sometimes with several lobules. In most cases, blisters are found together with other lesions, such as ulcerations, scabs, and erythema in more or less geometric shapes.<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0035"></elsevierMultimedia>The lesions may be irregularly shaped and have an unusual distribution, for example perfectly irregular.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060">12,27</a> The course is always benign, but the size, number, and gangrenous nature of the blisters can sometimes produce veritable mutilations. Self-inflicted blisters are caused by burns or cauterization and are produced through the application of chemical or medical products.Blisters can also be produced through friction on sites where the epidermis is thick and firmly attached to the underlying tissues. The histologic findings in such cases are characteristic and can distinguish these lesions from the blisters found in bullous disorders.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140">28</a>In one report a rubber nipple was used to produce suction blisters mimicking pemphigoid.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145">29</a> In another case of DA, an aerosol spray deodorant was used by a 12-year-old girl to induce blistering.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145">29</a> The same method was used by 3 patients (a 12-year-old boy and 2 women aged 21 and 36 years), who induced bullous lesions on the extensor surfaces of the limbs by producing cold burns using a spray deodorant.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150">30</a> This was probably also the method used in the case of a 13-year-old girl described in another case report.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120">24</a>In our series, 21 (10.3%) of the 201 patients presented with a variety of bullous symptoms, a presentation more common among men (13.3%) than women (9.2%).</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0020">4.Panniculitis. Ackerman et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155">31</a> reported the case of an adolescent with fever, nodular syndrome, and nonsuppurating panniculitis—a presentation clinically and histologically consistent with Weber-Christian disease. By chance it was discovered that the manifestations were caused by self-injections of milk that produced erythematous nodules around the injection site accompanied by chills, fever, sweating, and general malaise. Steinman and colleagues<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160">32</a> described a similar case in a nurse whose symptoms were also produced by self-inoculation with milk on the dorsum of the left hand. In a study of 5 women with factitious panniculitis,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165">33</a> the signs of disease were found to be produced by repeated trauma. The diagnosis was only confirmed after histologic examination revealed inflammatory features and bruising and after the lesions had been cured by means of occlusive dressings.It is important to note that some patients develop indurated lesions on the breast, which sometimes ulcerate, and when they are referred for surgical treatment they may undergo a mastectomy without any prior biopsy having been performed.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">12</a> A recent Spanish study summarized the etiologic, pathogenic, clinical, and histologic features and treatment of panniculitis produced by trauma or the injection of drugs or chemicals.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170">34</a>In our series, 7 patients (3.4%) were diagnosed with factitious panniculitis (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#fig0040">Figs. 8 and 9</a>). In 1 case, the symptoms were caused by subcutaneous injection of urine.<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0040"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0045"></elsevierMultimedia></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0025">5.Localized crusting. Carteaud<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175">35</a> described a case of factitious cheilitis, which he called le tic des levres. Some years later, Savage<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180">36</a> reported a similar condition, which he called localized crusting; he described cases of keratotic or bleeding scabs on the lips that had no apparent cause in which he suspected deliberate or unconscious manipulation by the patient. Several terms have been used to describe this clinical picture, including factitious lip crusting,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0185">37</a>factitious cheilitis,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0190">38–40</a> and exfoliative cheilitis artefacta.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0205">41–43</a> It has been speculated that the mechanism of production might be repeated manipulation of the lips with the teeth, tongue, or even instruments.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220">44</a> In some cases, the nasal pyramid is affected.Our series included 6 patients (5 women and 1 man) with localized crusting; in one of the women, the crust was located on a finger. One of the woman (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0050">Fig. 10</a>) had concomitant anorexia nervosa.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0225">45,46</a><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0050"></elsevierMultimedia></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0030">6.Eczematous lesions. Some patients produce eczematous lesions by applying irritants to the skin<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235">47</a> or exposing themselves repeatedly to an allergen in the case of patients with allergic contact dermatitis. It is sometimes difficult to prove the cause of such lesions.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240">48</a></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0035">7.Edemas. In 1911, Secretan<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245">49</a> described swollen limbs as a possible presentation of self-inflicted disease. Angelini et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250">50</a> later called this form of self-harm Secretan syndrome. Smith<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255">51</a> defined a set of criteria that should raise a suspicion that the lymphedema is factitious: recurrent unilateral lymphedema without any apparent lymphatic or venous obstruction and any lymphedema that is clearly delimited by a ring of a different coloration. Several types of edema caused by ligatures are reported in the literature, including edema of the nipple,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260">52</a> the tongue,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265">53</a> the neck,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270">54</a> and even of the scrotum leading to self-castration.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275">55</a></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0040">8.Purpuras and bruises. Gardner and Diamond<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0280">56</a> first described the autoerythrocyte sensitization syndrome, which is characterized by painful ecchymoses in sites within reach of the hands, typically in women with psychological disorders (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0055">Fig. 11</a>). The patients’ hypersensitivity to injections of their own blood has been used as a diagnostic criterion. Some authors have tried to differentiate between purpura factitia and autoerythrocyte hypersensitivity syndrome.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0285">57</a> In their view, the latter condition is characterized by the presence of prior pain and possibly bleeding in internal organs, while the appearance of lesions in purpura factitia is not preceded by pain and the results of challenge tests with the patient's own blood are negative if the site is protected with a bandage. However, the criteria for differentiating between purpura factitia and autoerythrocyte hypersensitivity syndrome are unclear. Despite these nosological difficulties, the authors of a recent review of the literature including 162 cases propose treatment with psychotropic drugs and psychotherapy.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0290">58</a> While differentiating these 2 disorders is difficult,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295">59</a> the case of a patient with DA and painful bruising syndrome may be of some help.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300">60</a><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0055"></elsevierMultimedia></li></ul><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia>In our series, 3 women (aged 26, 27, and 36 years) had this condition.The spectrum of clinical presentations of DA could be even broader than that described here as the manifestations depend on the patient's imagination.DiagnosisA diagnosis of DA is difficult to establish because of the great variety of possible dermatologic conditions. The situation is further complicated by the diversity of methods used by patients to self-harm and the ingenuity they employ in doing so (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0060">Fig. 12</a>).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305">61</a><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0060"></elsevierMultimedia>Three aspects can be used to establish a diagnosis of self-inflicted skin lesions: a) the morphology of the lesion; b) the patient's personality; and c) the medical history. However, it is not advisable to establish a diagnosis based on just one of these criteria.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060">12,13</a> DA is the somatic expression of extremely serious and deeply buried mental suffering, of which the patient is unaware.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065">13</a> In DA, the normal roles of patient, physician, and disease are subverted. This subversion takes the form of a twofold challenge, psychological on the one hand and a challenge to the standards underpinning medical practice on the other.The diagnosis should not be reached merely by a process of elimination, but should rather be established from among the possible alternatives. The diagnosis of DA is made on the basis of a combination of positive dermatological and psychological findings and requires the collaboration of the medical team and their acceptance that DA is the expression of significant mental suffering, of which the patient is unaware.Although very old, the Stokes and Gardner classification is still a useful tool for establishing a diagnosis of self-inflicted lesions. In the following sections we will outline the different aspects that form the basis of that classification.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310">62</a>Shape and Configuration of LesionsThe diagnosis should be determined by the shape of the lesions and by ruling out other skin disorders with clearly defined characteristics. Although the lesions may be caused by chemical or thermal burns, they can also be the result of trauma. Cutaneous artifacts caused by an instrument tend to be regular and geometric in shape (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0065">Fig. 13</a>), an uncommon morphology in the case of spontaneous eruptions. Chemical burns are regular in shape, although at times their borders may be interrupted by fingerlike projections caused by the linear spread of drips of the caustic liquid used to produce the lesion.<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0065"></elsevierMultimedia>Lesions sometimes have a bizarre or fantastic appearance<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315">63</a> (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#fig0070">Figs. 14 and 15</a>), appearing suddenly at irregular intervals, generally singly or in pairs. The course may be unusually rapid. When the caustic substance is applied using a needle or tweezers, a method frequently used in gangrenous areas, the edges of the lesion have a saw-tooth or serrated appearance, caused by the repeated pricks made along the leading edge. When escharotic lesions are observed, they tend to be superficial and the scabbed area is separated from the normal skin by an intensely erythematous border.<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0070"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0075"></elsevierMultimedia>It is sometimes possible to determine that the nails, fingers or a sharp object in the patient's possession are impregnated with the causal agent.In summary, to the eyes of an expert, these lesions will appear odd from the very beginning and are easily recognized as unexpected and dubious. The initial impression of self-harm is strong (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0080">Fig. 16</a>) and this is of great importance for the diagnosis; however, a diagnosis of self-harm should not be reached without careful critical analysis. Closer examination of the manifestations may provide the physician with evidence that will confirm the diagnosis of a self-inflicted lesion. DA is always destructive (ulcers, enucleations, gangrene)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">12</a> although such a clinical picture alone is not enough to establish a diagnosis of DA.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125">25</a><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0080"></elsevierMultimedia>Our series yielded a number of findings not yet reported in the literature: we were able to establish that the creation of lesions in multiple sites was more common among women, while solitary lesions were mainly observed in men.Distribution of the LesionsThe lesions are generally located in areas accessible to the hands and tend to be more numerous in sites accessible to the right hand in right-handed patients and vice versa. When choosing sites for lesions patients typically avoid the palms, soles, nose, mouth, scalp, genitals, and the outer ear.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315">63</a> The presence of lesions in an area inaccessible to the hands does not necessarily rule out a diagnosis of DA, since such sites can be reached by other means. Lesions are sometimes distributed regularly around a central point, such as a nipple or the navel, and they are often located close to a previous lesion, in an attempt to extend the original damage.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130">26</a>The sites found in our series were as follows: the face (34.5%), the lower limbs (25%), the upper limbs (16.6%), and the hands (15.5%). The most common site in men was the legs (51%) and in women the face (40%).If, as Fabisch<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320">64</a> has suggested, the anatomical site of the lesion has a psychological significance that should be taken into account by the psychotherapist, it is interesting to highlight the large number of women in our case series with lesions affecting the breasts (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0085">Fig. 17</a>), in some cases involving very destructive clinical forms.<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0085"></elsevierMultimedia>The Patient's DemeanorGreat importance is placed on the appearance and demeanor of the patient with DA. Typical descriptions include anxiousness, fine tremor of the facial muscles, tearful eyes, or on the contrary, a poker face or Mona Lisa expression.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">27</a> Some patients exhibit the calm of a tense person or a gaze with erotic connotations (bedroom eyes). Another remarkable characteristic seen in some patients is an attitude of great mental calm and complacency about their condition (what the French call la belle indifference).Young patients are sometimes accompanied by domineering parents or solicitous parents will accompany a difficult and precocious child. The patient's interest in their lesions, a tendency to display them and to express anger are all signs that should raise a suspicion of self-harm.The patient's expression can range from guilty, furtive, or unfriendly to one of obvious pretense. Some patients may be reserved and uncommunicative or display signs of low intelligence, although in Lyell's<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">12</a> view a high level of intelligence is also compatible with a diagnosis of DA, while a mature personality is not. Obviously none of these criteria is absolute.TimingRecurrence following periods of stress, sleepwalking episodes, the patient's failure to return after several visits, the appearance of lesions on certain dates, and lesions that appear overnight are all signs of self-harm. Another circumstance that may suggest DA is when the recurrence of lesions coincides with a new job, moving house, a new school, the death of a family member, or any other event likely to cause mental stress, depending on the age and circumstances of the patient. In such cases, the lesion can be interpreted as an attempt at nonverbal communication.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320">64</a>The patients’ inability to talk about the origin of their lesions or their lack of interest in the subject prevents the dermatologist from gaining a clear idea of the situation. The patient's account of the lesions is sometimes so lacking in substance that Gandy<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125">25</a> coined the term hollow history. This perplexity about what is happening is expressed by the patient in bitter and hostile terms, and new lesions will continue to appear as long as the conditions are favorable, that is, as long as the patient enjoys privacy and a supply of the necessary materials.Another term used in DA is melodramatic prophecy, referring to predictions by patients concerning when and where new lesions will appear.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">12</a> Many patients with DA play games with their physicians informing them 12 or 24hours before the lesions appear what sites will be affected, explaining that the lesion will be preceded by heat, burning, or some other abnormal sensation.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315">63</a> In other cases lesions appear in a place where the dermatologist has suggested they might occur.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305">61</a>Assessment of Neurological Signs and SymptomsSubjective sensations, such as pain and burning, may be exaggerated by patients with DA. The patient's psychiatric history should be investigated to establish whether he or she has had any previous psychiatric diagnosis or has a family history of mental illness.Study of MotivesIn the case of patients with a hysterical personality, the motive for self-harm is to deceive, but the underlying cause is solely the desire to be a sick person in order to escape personal obligations and inner conflicts<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0325">65,66</a> even though there may be no apparent justification for the patient's conduct.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335">67</a> The possible motives for DA will be as varied as are human personalities and the situations of life itself.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125">25</a> The motive can sometimes be a simple desire to arouse the sympathy of relatives or friends or an attempt to rationalize feelings of frustration or failure in life; in other cases the behavior may be a result of conflict in the patient's social environment, financial problems, a lack of self-esteem, atonement for guilt, revenge, or a way to escape responsibilities.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0340">68</a> Patients who create skin artifacts are also trying, often unconsciously, to attract the attention of those around them to an inner conflict for which they have no solution.Malingerers and fraudsters do not easily fool doctors<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0050">10,69</a> because the patient who merely contrives disease is an impostor; in such cases the external incentive for the behavior must be found to confirm the diagnosis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125">25</a> Such individuals typically use lesions to achieve a secondary goal: to excuse failure, attract sympathy, escape responsibilities, or simply to delay making a payment that is due.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0350">70</a> They may have criminal motives, such as fraud or avoidance of a legal obligation,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335">67</a> or even use the situation to obtain privileges, money, or narcotics.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050">10</a>HistologyA fairly common characteristic in the histology of DA is that superficial involvement predominates over deeper involvement.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305">61</a> Typically, abnormal findings are restricted to the epidermis and no accumulation of lymphocytes or signs of vasculitis are found. However, the findings are not diagnostic and in most cases will depend on the method used to create the lesion. A wide range of histologic findings have been reported, including<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355">71</a> erosion, acanthotic epidermis, chronic perivascular infiltrate, and foreign-body reaction with birefringent material.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0165">33,34</a>Whenever possible a biopsy should be obtained because histologic findings have in many cases been fundamental to the diagnosis, particularly when other skin conditions have been confused with DA. Perhaps the dermatological diagnosis most often confused with DA is pyoderma gangrenosum. DA has also been confused with pyoderma and vice versa.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0360">72–74</a> Conditions misdiagnosed as DA on the basis of clinical findings have been shown by histologic findings to be genuine panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0375">75</a> By contrast, a case of DA on a girl's face mimicked a lymphoma,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0380">76</a> while in other cases erosive lichen planus,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385">77</a> cryoglobulinemia,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390">78</a> and acquired hemophilia<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0395">79</a> were misdiagnosed as DA. In other cases DA presented clinically as vasculitis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0400">80</a> and trigeminal trophic syndrome was misdiagnosed as DA due to the absence of abnormal histologic findings.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405">81</a>It is sometimes essential to use more complex histologic techniques, such as X-ray analysis and spectrophotometry. In one case, spectrophotometry demonstrated that the cause of recurrent abscesses was cellulose.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0410">82</a> In an earlier case, electron probe microanalysis was used to determine the presence and nature of factitious granulomas.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0415">83</a> Friction blisters at the level of the distal stratum granulosum have been reported.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0420">84</a> The presence of birefringent material and pseudocystic spaces replacing fat are important indications that will help to establish the diagnosis of factitious panniculitis.There is no doubt that DA lesions can mimic other skin processes. McCormac<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335">67</a> makes the point that, while it is clear that a patient cannot produce lesions that simulate psoriasis or lichen planus, they can create lesions with a very obvious inflammatory substrate.Differential DiagnosisThe dermatological condition most likely to cause problems in the differential diagnosis of DA is neurotic excoriation.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0425">85</a> While the lesions in this condition are also self-inflicted, the patients do not try to deceive the physician; they are victims of an irresistible urge to pick, scratch, or otherwise manipulate the skin, nails, or hair.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080">16</a> Another important difference between neurotic excoriation and DA is that patients with the former only use their nails while patients with DA may use a range of methods to damage the skin.DA must be differentiated from the skin lesions produced by psychotic patients, who may use their fingernails to excoriate the skin and cause ulcers that may become infected. In such cases, there is no doubt about the origin of the lesions because the patient causes them in view of other people.PsychopathologyExperts concur that DA is a cutaneous manifestation of a psychiatric disorder and the condition is classified in the DSM-IV (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040">8</a><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia>One of the chief concerns of physicians who study DA is to identify a motive that would justify the behavior of patients who self-harm, although some clinicians and dermatologists have minimized the role of the mind in the development and perpetuation of certain types of skin disease by applying the frivolous designation “nervous” and have failed to ensure that the patient receive appropriate psychiatric treatment.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0430">86</a> Fortunately, the work of English,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0435">87</a> Cormia,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0440">88</a> and Zaidens<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0445">89</a> has led to a better understanding of psychosomatic conditions and improved treatment.There is no consensus about the personality type involved in DA. Some authors consider that there are 2 types of patients, some hysterical and others who are simply malingerers.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0085">17,25,67,70,90</a> Others classify patients with DA as hysterical or psychotic.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0340">68,86</a> Michelson<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330">66</a> and Susskind<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0450">90</a> believe that all DA patients are hysterical, while Koblenzer<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0455">91</a> considers them all to be borderline psychotic. Factitious disease appears to be a kind of emotional safety valve in emotionally immature patients who typically present hysterical and masochistic characteristics.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050">10</a> Lesions may be produced when patients are in an altered psychogenic, borderline,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0460">92</a> or dissociative state, so that they are not conscious of their actions.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030">6</a> The psychological importance of DA is that while the patients consciously produce the lesions, they are unaware of the reasons for their self-destructive behavior. Patients may exaggerate pain, adopting the role of martyr, and this posture is confirmed by their great capacity to take pleasure in tolerating pain.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0430">86</a>Although they cannot be considered to have psychotic personalities, many patients with DA do have a borderline personality structure and are unable to develop mature relationships. They use their lesions to maintain contact with others and to get the attention they desperately need to fill their emotional vacuum. Another motive for self-harm may be a desire to do penance for unconscious sins or their behavior may be a displaced expression of infantile rage.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0455">91</a>Musaph<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0465">93</a> considers that patients with DA produce their symptoms unconsciously, and psychiatric-psychological studies have revealed that the condition is in part due to aggressive sexual feelings directed against key figures in the patient's childhood.Zaidens<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0460">92</a> is the author who has perhaps contributed the most psychological and psychiatric studies on DA. She believes that self-inflicted dermatitis represents frustration, resentment, a demand for attention, anxiety, hostility, and helplessness. The self-destruction is proportional to the severity of the underlying emotional disturbance.Auto-destructive mechanisms develop in dependent and timid individuals who are unable to express themselves. These patients have been conceived and reared in an environment fettered by emotional barriers, and their growth has not been very important to their parents, particularly their mothers. Most patients with DA are adults in middle-age who have not achieved their life goals or have not achieved the levels of success typical of their class models, in either social or economic terms.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0470">94</a> In psychological terms, they use DA to get sympathy, attention, pity, or compensation. Moreover, since patients with DA are unable to deal with their problems, or to even admit that they have a problem, the lesions provide them with an excuse they can use to rationalize their frustrations.DA sometimes appears in the context of a folie à deux or shared dementia. Shared dementia is a psychotic disorder characterized by the development of a hallucinatory pattern shared by 2 people. Since those affected have a long-lasting intimate relationship, the disorder is not uncommon in older adults.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0475">95,96</a> It sometimes involves a mother and her children<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0485">97</a> and forms part of a syndrome of childhood abuse.Self-inflicted dermatoses are also observed in patients with anorexia nervosa.Factitious disease involves many paradoxes, the most important of which is that the patient causes the physical symptoms and seeks a remedy for them. The psychodynamic etiology of factitious disorders may be related to a history of abuse or neglect in childhood, early emotional deprivation, or lack of care. All of these factors are found frequently in the history of these patients.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0235">47,98</a> Some authors have interpreted DA to be a disorder caused by borderline personality. In their opinion, the patient is both victim and punisher, a person intent on capturing the attention of doctors while at the same time challenging them and devaluing their usefulness. The additional benefit of playing the role of a sick person (thereby obtaining attention, support, and sympathy while escaping responsibilities) may also be important to these patients. By simulating a disease patients can evade responsibilities and satisfy their dependence needs, even though in DA this goal is achieved in a bizarre and self-destructive manner.DA is not indicative of a particular personality organization, but the patient's personality type is a prognostic factor, as is the age of onset. In adolescents the disorder is usually a cry for help. The most common personality type in men with DA is paranoid while in women it is hysterical.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065">13</a>It is currently thought that DA occurs in patients with a borderline personality disorder, although an association has also been described with impulse control disorder<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0495">99</a> and obsessive compulsive disorder.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0500">100,101</a>PrognosisSeveral follow-up studies have been carried out to assess the prognosis in patients with DA. The first of these was undertaken by McCormack,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335">67</a> who sent a questionnaire to 10 patients. Only 5 answered, and the findings of that study indicated that the condition is more uncommon in patients over 25 years of age. Subsequently, Sneddon et al,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0505">101</a> who studied 43 patients (38 women and 5 men), reported that DA was only one incident in a long history of mental illness. However, 30% of the patients in that study (12 women and one man) continued to self-inflict lesions or had other mental illnesses 12 years after the onset of DA. Years later, Haenel et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0490">98</a> invited 59 patients (52 women and 7 men) who had been diagnosed with DA to be reassessed. Of the 36 women and 2 men who responded, DA had resolved in 9, but the others still had recurrent lesions. Eight of the 36 women reported one or more suicide attempts. In a follow-up study carried out in our own department,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130">26,102</a> 61 patients who had been diagnosed with DA were invited to attend the clinic for reassessment. Nine (8 women and 1 man) of the 34 patients who responded (24 women and 10 men) were still affected by DA, an indication that this is a chronic and insidious disorder.Malignant transformation of a lesion was reported in a woman with DA who persistently excoriated a cholecystectomy scar over 40 years.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0515">103</a> Another similar case involved the development of a malignant tumor in an ulcer on the face of a 49-year-old man, which the patient scratched compulsively.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0520">104</a> In both these cases, the malignancy was a Marjolin ulcer, a squamous cell carcinoma that arises in a chronic ulcer. The most common complications of DA are related to infections.TreatmentDA probably represents one of the greatest therapeutic challenges in dermatology.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">12</a> Consoli<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065">13</a> suggested that the 3 pillars of treatment should be a) restructuring the patient's personality, b) drug treatment for the psychiatric condition, and c) medical treatment of the skin lesions. A prolonged period during which a friendly relationship can be established with the patient may help to prevent abrupt termination of treatment when the patient is finally confronted with the real situation. If this initial confrontation does not provoke a negative reaction or cause the patient to abandon treatment, a mental health treatment plan can be implemented, if possible including inpatient treatment. A supportive approach avoiding condemnation is always preferable. The dermatologist should be prepared for a prolonged course of treatment with repeated relapses and should never express disappointment or hostility over these failures. The cost of treating DA in 1 patient over 5 years of consultations has been estimated at €64 500.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0525">105</a>The treatment of factitious disease is often unsatisfactory, whether it is managed by a dermatologist, a psychiatrist, or both. Maybe the underlying reason is that these patients are in hiding and although they have to consult a physician because their symptoms are so obvious they do not wish to be cured.The ideal approach is to refer the patient to a psychiatrist, but patients find such a referral incomprehensible because they believe they have a dermatological condition and do not understand why the dermatologist does not want to cure the lesions. As Sneddon<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">27</a> has said, the treatment of patients with DA is difficult because, although they need the help of a psychiatrist, they reject this advice and any suggestion that their disease is not organic leads to a traumatic and conflictive visit after which they change doctors. When it is impossible to convince the patient to consult a psychiatrist, therapy with psychotropic drugs can be very helpful. The following drugs have been shown to be useful: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0290">58</a> pimozide (0.5-1mg/d), aripiprazole (2-5mg/d), or risperidone (0.5mg/d).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0530">106,107</a> Other measures and treatments that have been proposed include relaxation therapy, anxiolytics, antidepressants, and low doses of second-generation antipsychotics.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0540">108</a>The skin lesions can be cured with the aid of occlusive dressings (adhesive zinc or sometimes plaster wrap).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0530">106</a> Rapid healing of a bandaged ulcer that has previously proved refractory to all treatment is a sign of great diagnostic value, as is the appearance of new lesions on unbandaged and, in most cases, previously unaffected areas. As occlusive bandages can be pierced by sharp instruments and patients can inject substances through the dressing, a sheet of aluminum foil may be included in the dressing to record the evidence of any such manipulations on the part of the patient.Ethical DisclosuresProtection of human and animal subjectsThe authors state that no experiments were performed on humans or animals for this investigation.Confidentiality of dataThe authors declare that they have followed the protocols of their workplace concerning the publication of patient data, and that all the patients included in this study have been appropriately informed and gave their written informed consent to participate in this study.Right to privacy and informed consentThe authors declare that no private patient data are disclosed in this articleConflicts of InterestsThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest." "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:17 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xres295308" "titulo" => "Abstract" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec279229" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xres295309" "titulo" => "Resumen" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec279230" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Definition" ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Epidemiology" ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "Clinical Features" ] 8 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Diagnosis" "secciones" => array:6 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "Shape and Configuration of Lesions" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0035" "titulo" => "Distribution of the Lesions" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0040" "titulo" => "The Patient's Demeanor" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0045" "titulo" => "Timing" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0050" "titulo" => "Assessment of Neurological Signs and Symptoms" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0055" "titulo" => "Study of Motives" ] ] ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0060" "titulo" => "Histology" ] 10 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0065" "titulo" => "Differential Diagnosis" ] 11 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0070" "titulo" => "Psychopathology" ] 12 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0075" "titulo" => "Prognosis" ] 13 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0080" "titulo" => "Treatment" ] 14 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0085" "titulo" => "Ethical Disclosures" "secciones" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0090" "titulo" => "Protection of human and animal subjects" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0095" "titulo" => "Confidentiality of data" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0100" "titulo" => "Right to privacy and informed consent" ] ] ] 15 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0105" "titulo" => "Conflicts of Interests" ] 16 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2011-11-23" "fechaAceptado" => "2012-10-14" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec279229" "palabras" => array:3 [ 0 => "Dermatitis artefacta" 1 => "Self-inflicted lesions" 2 => "Factitious dermatitis" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec279230" "palabras" => array:3 [ 0 => "Dermatitis artefacta" 1 => "Lesiones autoprovocadas" 2 => "Dermatitis facticia" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "Dermatitis artefacta is a rarely diagnosed disorder that is often a source of perplexity and anxiety for dermatologists because they know less about the cause of this self-inflicted condition than the patients themselves. It differs from other skin disorders in that diagnosis is made by exclusion rather than on the basis of histologic and biochemical findings and therefore involves a considerable investment of time and resources. Based on the findings of a study of 201 patients diagnosed with dermatitis artefacta between 1976 and 2006, we review the different clinical presentations of this skin disorder and discuss its diagnosis and treatment. The series analyzed comprised 152 women and 49 men (female to male ratio of 3.1:1) with a mean age of 31.2 years. The patients were mostly single and had a low educational level and few or no job qualifications or skills." ] "es" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "La dermatitis artefacta (DA) es un diagnóstico excepcional, que genera perplejidad y ansiedad al dermatólogo al encontrase ante una patología autoprovocada y de la que el paciente sabe más que el médico en cuanto a su etiología. Al contrario que otras dermatosis en la que existen pruebas histológicas o bioquímicas, en la DA el diagnóstico es de exclusión lo que exige un gran consumo de recursos y de tiempo. En el presente trabajo repasamos las diversas formas clínicas, criterios diagnósticos y manejo de estos pacientes y para ello nos basamos en la experiencia del estudio que realizamos de 201 casos de DA diagnosticados entre 1976 y 2006, de los cuales 152 eran mujeres y 49 varones, con una proporción de mujeres/varones de 3.1/1. La edad media fue de 31.2 años y estaba mayoritariamente constituida por personas con escasa o nula cualificación laboral, bajo nivel cultural y mayoritariamente solteros." ] ] "NotaPie" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "☆" "nota" => "Please cite this article as: Rodríguez Pichardo A, García Bravo B. Dermatitis artefacta: revisión. Actas Dermosifiliogr. 2013;104:854–866." ] ] "multimedia" => array:19 [ 0 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 1141 "Ancho" => 2670 "Tamanyo" => 155040 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Distribution by sex of various clinical forms of dermatitis artefacta." ] ] 1 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0010" "etiqueta" => "Figure 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 1171 "Ancho" => 801 "Tamanyo" => 82193 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Linear excoriations on the forearm of a girl in a star pattern." ] ] 2 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0015" "etiqueta" => "Figure 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr3.jpeg" "Alto" => 987 "Ancho" => 801 "Tamanyo" => 115134 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Linear excoriations produced with the nails." ] ] 3 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0020" "etiqueta" => "Figure 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg" "Alto" => 776 "Ancho" => 900 "Tamanyo" => 129660 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Excoriations made using an abrasive scouring pad." ] ] 4 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0025" "etiqueta" => "Figure 5" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr5.jpeg" "Alto" => 565 "Ancho" => 900 "Tamanyo" => 89487 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Eschars caused by ammonia burns." ] ] 5 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0030" "etiqueta" => "Figure 6" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr6.jpeg" "Alto" => 675 "Ancho" => 900 "Tamanyo" => 133559 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Ulcers with “capricious” shapes on a man's forearm." ] ] 6 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0035" "etiqueta" => "Figure 7" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr7.jpeg" "Alto" => 1067 "Ancho" => 801 "Tamanyo" => 124977 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Linear friction blister in the form of a cross." ] ] 7 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0040" "etiqueta" => "Figure 8" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr8.jpeg" "Alto" => 675 "Ancho" => 900 "Tamanyo" => 73596 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Panniculitis on the wrist and the dorsum of the hands caused by injection of a silicone material." ] ] 8 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0045" "etiqueta" => "Figure 9" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr9.jpeg" "Alto" => 564 "Ancho" => 901 "Tamanyo" => 121271 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Panniculitis on the leg of a novice nun." ] ] 9 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0050" "etiqueta" => "Figure 10" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr10.jpeg" "Alto" => 1098 "Ancho" => 900 "Tamanyo" => 151988 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Crusting sores on the lips of a patient with anorexia nervosa." ] ] 10 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0055" "etiqueta" => "Figure 11" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr11.jpeg" "Alto" => 954 "Ancho" => 900 "Tamanyo" => 100312 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Painful bruising in a 36-year-old woman with a severe psychological disorder." ] ] 11 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0060" "etiqueta" => "Figure 12" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr12.jpeg" "Alto" => 1006 "Ancho" => 900 "Tamanyo" => 139723 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Symptoms caused by the application of a liquid photosensitizer before exposure to UV radiation in a tanning booth." ] ] 12 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0065" "etiqueta" => "Figure 13" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr13.jpeg" "Alto" => 1051 "Ancho" => 900 "Tamanyo" => 129455 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "A burn probably caused by an iron." ] ] 13 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0070" "etiqueta" => "Figure 14" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr14.jpeg" "Alto" => 541 "Ancho" => 900 "Tamanyo" => 90607 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Geometric exulcerations on the face and dorsum of the nose." ] ] 14 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0075" "etiqueta" => "Figure 15" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr15.jpeg" "Alto" => 1504 "Ancho" => 801 "Tamanyo" => 158291 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Burns on the upper right limb of a left-handed patient." ] ] 15 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0080" "etiqueta" => "Figure 16" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr16.jpeg" "Alto" => 581 "Ancho" => 900 "Tamanyo" => 87982 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Superficial burns on the forearms." ] ] 16 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0085" "etiqueta" => "Figure 17" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr17.jpeg" "Alto" => 484 "Ancho" => 901 "Tamanyo" => 83154 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Burns on breasts and mirrored lesions on the submammary region." ] ] 17 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "tbl0005" "etiqueta" => "Table 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "tabla" => array:2 [ "leyenda" => "Source: Gupta et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020">4</a>" "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">1. Primary psychiatric symptom that manifests as a dermatological condition \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">a) Delirium \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">b) Hallucinations \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">c) Body dysmorphic disorder \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">2. Disorders associated with self-inflicted dermatoses \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">a) Dermatitis artefacta \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">b) Neurotic excoriations \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">c) Excoriated acne \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">d) Trichotillomania \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">3. Miscellaneous syndromes \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">a) Burning mouth syndrome \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">b) Psychogenic pruritus \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">c) Psychogenic purpura syndrome \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab430512.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Associations of Skin Disease with Psychiatric Disorders." ] ] 18 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "tbl0010" "etiqueta" => "Table 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "tabla" => array:2 [ "leyenda" => "Source: DSM-IV: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040">8</a>" "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">A. Intentional production or feigning of physical (but not psychological symptoms) signs or symptoms \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">B. A psychological need to assume the role of a sick person, evidenced by the absence of any external incentive for the behavior, such as economic gain, obtaining better care, or improving physical well-being \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">C. The disturbance does not occur exclusively during the course of an axis 1 disorder, such as schizophrenia. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab430511.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "DSM-IV Criteria for Factitious Disorder with Predominantly Physical Signs and Symptoms (300.19)." ] ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" "seccion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "bibs0005" "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:108 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bib0005" "etiqueta" => "1" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "contribucion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Dermatitis artefacta. 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Dermatitis Artefacta: A Review

Dermatitis artefacta: revisión

A. Rodríguez Pichardo

Corresponding author

arodriguezpi@aedv.es

Corresponding author.

, B. García Bravo

Departamento de Dermatología, Hospital Universitario Virgen Macarena, Sevilla, Spain

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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The nosological position of dermatitis artefacta &#40;DA&#41; is clear in the numerous classification schemes of skin conditions linked to mental disorders&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#8211;6</span></a> in which it is invariably classified as a manifestation of a primary psychiatric disorder&#46; While the Vienna Diagnoses Schedule for Psychodermatological Disorders is probably the most complete and comprehensive classification published to date&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> it is of little practical use for dermatologists who do not work in the field of psychodermatology&#46; It may therefore be preferable to use Gupta&#39;s<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> classification of psychodermatoses &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#44; which is more didactic as it is based on the current concepts of psychiatric disease defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders &#40;DSM-IV&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The term <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">dermatitis artefacta</span> is only used to refer to the condition in which skin lesions appear in a secret and mysterious way while the patient denies all responsibility for their production&#46; In DA&#44; the patient produces skin lesions to satisfy a psychological need&#44; often a desire to receive medical treatment&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Malingerers also deny responsibility for producing the signs and symptoms of their disease&#44; but they do so for easy-to-discover reasons&#44; such as financial gain or a lawsuit&#46; Munchausen syndrome sometimes includes skin involvement&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> generally DA&#44; but in that setting the skin involvement is just 1 element in a broad spectrum of conditions affecting other organs<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> and will be associated with repeated hospital admissions&#44; which the patient tries to conceal while demanding medication and exploratory tests&#46; Unlike DA&#44; Munchausen syndrome is more common in men than in women&#46; It is not unusual for DA to occur following treatment for another condition that brought the patient into contact with the hospital environment&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Definition</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">DA is defined as any condition involving self-inflicted skin lesions for which the patient denies all responsibility&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11&#44;12</span></a> However&#44; some authors consider that the nosological definition of DA should specifically exclude cases in which a rational motive exists for the self-infliction of lesions&#44; thereby excluding malingerers&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> Another essential characteristic of DA is that the patients conceal their role in producing the signs of their condition&#59; this concealment is what differentiates DA from other self-inflicted dermatoses&#44; such as self-mutilations by psychotic patients&#44; neurotic excoriation&#44; and trichotillomania&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Epidemiology</span><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Since DA is rare in routine dermatological practice&#44; the literature contains few case series&#46; Most authors have described isolated clinical cases of particular interest to specialists either because of the diagnostic challenges involved or the severity of the clinical presentation&#46; However&#44; it is believed that up to 5&#37; of medical visits may relate to factitious disease&#44; and such cases are not only observed in dermatology but also encountered by internal medicine&#44; ophthalmology&#44; endocrinology&#44; and ear nose and throat specialists&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#44;14</span></a> Owing to the ease with which it can be damaged&#44; the integrumentary system is the organ that is most often the object of self-inflicted lesions&#46; This was shown by a study of 31 patients who presented with factitious conditions in a general hospital<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a>&#59; in that study there were 13 cases of DA&#44; 12 cases of simulated fever&#44; 3 of self-inflicted bleeding&#44; 1 of polyuria-polydipsia syndrome&#44; 1 of hypoglycemia&#44; and 1 of hyperthyroidism&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Few series provide data that can be used to compare the relative incidence of DA and other psychodermatologic disorders&#46; In a 3-year study carried out in Iran&#44; 178 patients were diagnosed with various psychodermatologic disorders<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a>&#58; 128 neurotic excoriations &#40;71&#46;9&#37;&#41;&#44; 22 trichotillomania &#40;12&#46;4&#37;&#41;&#44; 16 delusional parasitosis &#40;9&#37;&#41;&#44; and 12 DA &#40;6&#46;7&#37;&#41;&#46; Women outnumbered men in all of these diagnoses except delusional parasitosis&#44; which was more frequent among men&#46; DA was the least common diagnosis&#46; In a study of 35 patients with dermatological disorders of strictly psychological origin&#44; 8 patients had DA&#44; 8 had delusional parasitosis&#44; and 19 had various dysmorphic disorders&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a></p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">One of the first case series of DA was published by Az&#250;a in 1909&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> After studying the cases of 4 women who had been diagnosed with &#8220;hysterical gangrene&#8221;&#44; he confirmed the hysterical origin in 1 case but redefined the other 3 as self-inflicted lesions&#46; One review of 59 articles on DA included 130 patients &#40;116 women and 14 men&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> A retrospective study in Denmark covering 20 years included 57 patients with a diagnosis of DA&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> That group consisted largely of women &#40;74&#37;&#41;&#44; with a female-to-male ratio of 2&#46;8&#58;1&#59; the median age was 39 years &#40;range&#44; 12-86&#41;&#46; A review of the records of a French dermatology department over a 15-year period identified 31 patients with a diagnosis of DA<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a>&#59; 23 of the patients were women &#40;mean age&#44; 32&#46;4 years&#41; and 8 were men &#40;mean age&#44; 23&#46;7 years&#41;&#46; Our series of patients diagnosed between 1976 and 2006 included 201 patients&#44; with a clear preponderance of women &#40;female-to-male ratio&#44; 3&#46;1&#58;1&#41; and mean age overall of 31&#46;2 years&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;21</span></a> Other interesting characteristics observed in our series were the low or nonexistent skill level&#44; low income&#44; and low cultural level of the patients and the higher proportion of single people&#46;</p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In children&#44; DA is more common among girls than boys&#44; as shown by a Mexican series of pediatric patients covering a period of 20 years&#44; which included 25 girls and only 4 boys&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a> Similarly&#44; an Australian study covering a 15-year period included 24 girls and only 8 boys&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a></p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">DA can appear at any age&#44; but the incidence is highest around 20 years of age&#46; In many cases onset is preceded by a period of psychosocial stress&#44; which is generally easily identified&#44; such as the psychological disturbance that produced acne symptoms in an adolescent who injured his skin with a blister agent&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> It is not unusual to find a connection with the hospital setting in these patients&#44; who may be nursing aides&#44; nurses&#44; relatives of physicians&#44; or individuals who have had prolonged diseases in childhood<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> or who have been affected by the death of a family member&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a></p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In summary&#44; we can say that DA is more common among females and<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2</span></a> in early adulthood and that a high proportion of those affected have a low social and cultural level&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Clinical Features</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">DA presents in a great variety of clinical forms &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41; depending on the patient&#39;s creativity and the method used to produce the lesion&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#44;25</span></a> The most common presentations are as follows&#58;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">1&#46;</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Excoriations&#46; Excoriations are the most easily diagnosed factitious lesions&#46; They are usually linear &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41; and are most often inflicted using the fingernails &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig&#46; 3</a>&#41; although a variety of sharp objects may also be used &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>&#41;&#46; Distinguishing between DA and neurotic excoriations can sometimes be difficult&#44; but patients who have the latter condition recognize that they have caused the lesions&#46; Excoriations are highly susceptible to infection and an indicative finding is the absence of itching before the onset of the lesion&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Excoriations are a common clinical form of DA because the lesions are easy to inflict&#59; in our case series they were observed in 52 &#40;25&#46;8&#37;&#41; of 201 patients and were more common in women &#40;28&#46;4&#37;&#41; than in men &#40;17&#46;7&#37;&#41;&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2&#46;</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Ulcers&#46; Ulcers are the most common lesions in most series&#46; They are found either in the early stages of development or after resolution&#44; when they take the form of an eschar &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">Fig&#46; 5</a>&#41;&#46; The morphology of these ulcers tends to be odd&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> either because they have perfectly regular borders or because they have an irregular shape that includes linear segments &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">Fig&#46; 6</a>&#41;&#44; acute and obtuse angles&#44; triangular forms&#44; star shapes etc&#46; Linear lesions that extend outwards from a primary lesion are also observed &#40;the drip sign&#41;&#46; Sometimes&#44; clearly ulcerated lesions appear together with other lesions that are either incompletely executed or caused by splashes of the caustic agent used to produce the ulcers&#46; Scars from past or old injuries may also be observed&#46; Old ulcerations that have been subjected to repeated irritation or modified by multiple treatments exhibit characteristics of torpidity &#40;sclerosis&#44; atrophy&#41;&#44; and underlying osteitis or necrosis caused by secondary infections is sometimes present&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a> Patients may also have scars with an irregular geometric shape&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0030"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Litmus paper can be used to test the alkalinity or acidity of unexplained ulcers as the results may indicate the use of a chemical product as a probable cause&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#44;27</span></a> Repeated failure of skin grafts&#44; usually due to vascular problems&#44; should raise the suspicion of interference by the patient&#44; especially when the only organism found in cultures is fecal flora &#40;a finding observed in 4 of our cases&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In our series&#44; a clinical presentation described as an ulcer was observed in 52 patients &#40;25&#46;8&#37;&#41;&#44; making it&#44; together with the category of excoriations&#44; the leading manifestation&#46; Ulcers were more common among males &#40;31&#46;1&#37;&#41; than females &#40;23&#46;8&#37;&#41;&#46; In a study of patients with DA affecting the breast&#44; excoriations and ulcers were found to be equally common &#40;33&#46;33&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a></p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">3&#46;</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Blisters&#46; Self-inflicted lesions sometimes take the form of blisters&#46; The appearance of these lesions may be odd&#59; they may be elongated &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig&#46; 7</a>&#41;&#44; angular&#44; polygonal&#44; or occasionally very large&#44; sometimes with several lobules&#46; In most cases&#44; blisters are found together with other lesions&#44; such as ulcerations&#44; scabs&#44; and erythema in more or less geometric shapes&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0035"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The lesions may be irregularly shaped and have an unusual distribution&#44; for example perfectly irregular&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#44;27</span></a> The course is always benign&#44; but the size&#44; number&#44; and gangrenous nature of the blisters can sometimes produce veritable mutilations&#46; Self-inflicted blisters are caused by burns or cauterization and are produced through the application of chemical or medical products&#46;</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Blisters can also be produced through friction on sites where the epidermis is thick and firmly attached to the underlying tissues&#46; The histologic findings in such cases are characteristic and can distinguish these lesions from the blisters found in bullous disorders&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a></p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In one report a rubber nipple was used to produce suction blisters mimicking pemphigoid&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> In another case of DA&#44; an aerosol spray deodorant was used by a 12-year-old girl to induce blistering&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> The same method was used by 3 patients &#40;a 12-year-old boy and 2 women aged 21 and 36 years&#41;&#44; who induced bullous lesions on the extensor surfaces of the limbs by producing cold burns using a spray deodorant&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a> This was probably also the method used in the case of a 13-year-old girl described in another case report&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a></p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In our series&#44; 21 &#40;10&#46;3&#37;&#41; of the 201 patients presented with a variety of bullous symptoms&#44; a presentation more common among men &#40;13&#46;3&#37;&#41; than women &#40;9&#46;2&#37;&#41;&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0020"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">4&#46;</span><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Panniculitis&#46; Ackerman et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> reported the case of an adolescent with fever&#44; nodular syndrome&#44; and nonsuppurating panniculitis&#8212;a presentation clinically and histologically consistent with Weber-Christian disease&#46; By chance it was discovered that the manifestations were caused by self-injections of milk that produced erythematous nodules around the injection site accompanied by chills&#44; fever&#44; sweating&#44; and general malaise&#46; Steinman and colleagues<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a> described a similar case in a nurse whose symptoms were also produced by self-inoculation with milk on the dorsum of the left hand&#46; In a study of 5 women with factitious panniculitis&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> the signs of disease were found to be produced by repeated trauma&#46; The diagnosis was only confirmed after histologic examination revealed inflammatory features and bruising and after the lesions had been cured by means of occlusive dressings&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is important to note that some patients develop indurated lesions on the breast&#44; which sometimes ulcerate&#44; and when they are referred for surgical treatment they may undergo a mastectomy without any prior biopsy having been performed&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> A recent Spanish study summarized the etiologic&#44; pathogenic&#44; clinical&#44; and histologic features and treatment of panniculitis produced by trauma or the injection of drugs or chemicals&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a></p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In our series&#44; 7 patients &#40;3&#46;4&#37;&#41; were diagnosed with factitious panniculitis &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#fig0040">Figs&#46; 8 and 9</a>&#41;&#46; In 1 case&#44; the symptoms were caused by subcutaneous injection of urine&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0040"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0045"></elsevierMultimedia></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0025"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">5&#46;</span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Localized crusting&#46; Carteaud<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> described a case of factitious cheilitis&#44; which he called <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">le tic des levres</span>&#46; Some years later&#44; Savage<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> reported a similar condition&#44; which he called localized crusting&#59; he described cases of keratotic or bleeding scabs on the lips that had no apparent cause in which he suspected deliberate or unconscious manipulation by the patient&#46; Several terms have been used to describe this clinical picture&#44; including <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">factitious lip crusting</span>&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">factitious cheilitis</span>&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0190"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38&#8211;40</span></a> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">exfoliative cheilitis artefacta</span>&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41&#8211;43</span></a> It has been speculated that the mechanism of production might be repeated manipulation of the lips with the teeth&#44; tongue&#44; or even instruments&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44</span></a> In some cases&#44; the nasal pyramid is affected&#46;</p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Our series included 6 patients &#40;5 women and 1 man&#41; with localized crusting&#59; in one of the women&#44; the crust was located on a finger&#46; One of the woman &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0050">Fig&#46; 10</a>&#41; had concomitant anorexia nervosa&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45&#44;46</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0050"></elsevierMultimedia></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0030"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">6&#46;</span><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Eczematous lesions&#46; Some patients produce eczematous lesions by applying irritants to the skin<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a> or exposing themselves repeatedly to an allergen in the case of patients with allergic contact dermatitis&#46; It is sometimes difficult to prove the cause of such lesions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></a></p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0035"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">7&#46;</span><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Edemas&#46; In 1911&#44; Secretan<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49</span></a> described swollen limbs as a possible presentation of self-inflicted disease&#46; Angelini et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50</span></a> later called this form of self-harm Secretan syndrome&#46; Smith<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">51</span></a> defined a set of criteria that should raise a suspicion that the lymphedema is factitious&#58; recurrent unilateral lymphedema without any apparent lymphatic or venous obstruction and any lymphedema that is clearly delimited by a ring of a different coloration&#46; Several types of edema caused by ligatures are reported in the literature&#44; including edema of the nipple&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52</span></a> the tongue&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">53</span></a> the neck&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">54</span></a> and even of the scrotum leading to self-castration&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">55</span></a></p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0040"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">8&#46;</span><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Purpuras and bruises&#46; Gardner and Diamond<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0280"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">56</span></a> first described the autoerythrocyte sensitization syndrome&#44; which is characterized by painful ecchymoses in sites within reach of the hands&#44; typically in women with psychological disorders &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0055">Fig&#46; 11</a>&#41;&#46; The patients&#8217; hypersensitivity to injections of their own blood has been used as a diagnostic criterion&#46; Some authors have tried to differentiate between purpura factitia and autoerythrocyte hypersensitivity syndrome&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">57</span></a> In their view&#44; the latter condition is characterized by the presence of prior pain and possibly bleeding in internal organs&#44; while the appearance of lesions in purpura factitia is not preceded by pain and the results of challenge tests with the patient&#39;s own blood are negative if the site is protected with a bandage&#46; However&#44; the criteria for differentiating between purpura factitia and autoerythrocyte hypersensitivity syndrome are unclear&#46; Despite these nosological difficulties&#44; the authors of a recent review of the literature including 162 cases propose treatment with psychotropic drugs and psychotherapy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0290"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">58</span></a> While differentiating these 2 disorders is difficult&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">59</span></a> the case of a patient with DA and painful bruising syndrome may be of some help&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">60</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0055"></elsevierMultimedia></li></ul></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In our series&#44; 3 women &#40;aged 26&#44; 27&#44; and 36 years&#41; had this condition&#46;</p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The spectrum of clinical presentations of DA could be even broader than that described here as the manifestations depend on the patient&#39;s imagination&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Diagnosis</span><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A diagnosis of DA is difficult to establish because of the great variety of possible dermatologic conditions&#46; The situation is further complicated by the diversity of methods used by patients to self-harm and the ingenuity they employ in doing so &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0060">Fig&#46; 12</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">61</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0060"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Three aspects can be used to establish a diagnosis of self-inflicted skin lesions&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">a&#41;</span> the morphology of the lesion&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">b&#41;</span> the patient&#39;s personality&#59; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">c&#41;</span> the medical history&#46; However&#44; it is not advisable to establish a diagnosis based on just one of these criteria&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#44;13</span></a> DA is the somatic expression of extremely serious and deeply buried mental suffering&#44; of which the patient is unaware&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> In DA&#44; the normal roles of patient&#44; physician&#44; and disease are subverted&#46; This subversion takes the form of a twofold challenge&#44; psychological on the one hand and a challenge to the standards underpinning medical practice on the other&#46;</p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The diagnosis should not be reached merely by a process of elimination&#44; but should rather be established from among the possible alternatives&#46; The diagnosis of DA is made on the basis of a combination of positive dermatological and psychological findings and requires the collaboration of the medical team and their acceptance that DA is the expression of significant mental suffering&#44; of which the patient is unaware&#46;</p><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although very old&#44; the Stokes and Gardner classification is still a useful tool for establishing a diagnosis of self-inflicted lesions&#46; In the following sections we will outline the different aspects that form the basis of that classification&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62</span></a></p><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Shape and Configuration of Lesions</span><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The diagnosis should be determined by the shape of the lesions and by ruling out other skin disorders with clearly defined characteristics&#46; Although the lesions may be caused by chemical or thermal burns&#44; they can also be the result of trauma&#46; Cutaneous artifacts caused by an instrument tend to be regular and geometric in shape &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0065">Fig&#46; 13</a>&#41;&#44; an uncommon morphology in the case of spontaneous eruptions&#46; Chemical burns are regular in shape&#44; although at times their borders may be interrupted by fingerlike projections caused by the linear spread of drips of the caustic liquid used to produce the lesion&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0065"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Lesions sometimes have a bizarre or fantastic appearance<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">63</span></a> &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#fig0070">Figs&#46; 14 and 15</a>&#41;&#44; appearing suddenly at irregular intervals&#44; generally singly or in pairs&#46; The course may be unusually rapid&#46; When the caustic substance is applied using a needle or tweezers&#44; a method frequently used in gangrenous areas&#44; the edges of the lesion have a saw-tooth or serrated appearance&#44; caused by the repeated pricks made along the leading edge&#46; When escharotic lesions are observed&#44; they tend to be superficial and the scabbed area is separated from the normal skin by an intensely erythematous border&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0070"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0075"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is sometimes possible to determine that the nails&#44; fingers or a sharp object in the patient&#39;s possession are impregnated with the causal agent&#46;</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In summary&#44; to the eyes of an expert&#44; these lesions will appear odd from the very beginning and are easily recognized as unexpected and dubious&#46; The initial impression of self-harm is strong &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0080">Fig&#46; 16</a>&#41; and this is of great importance for the diagnosis&#59; however&#44; a diagnosis of self-harm should not be reached without careful critical analysis&#46; Closer examination of the manifestations may provide the physician with evidence that will confirm the diagnosis of a self-inflicted lesion&#46; DA is always destructive &#40;ulcers&#44; enucleations&#44; gangrene&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> although such a clinical picture alone is not enough to establish a diagnosis of DA&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0080"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Our series yielded a number of findings not yet reported in the literature&#58; we were able to establish that the creation of lesions in multiple sites was more common among women&#44; while solitary lesions were mainly observed in men&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Distribution of the Lesions</span><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The lesions are generally located in areas accessible to the hands and tend to be more numerous in sites accessible to the right hand in right-handed patients and vice versa&#46; When choosing sites for lesions patients typically avoid the palms&#44; soles&#44; nose&#44; mouth&#44; scalp&#44; genitals&#44; and the outer ear&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">63</span></a> The presence of lesions in an area inaccessible to the hands does not necessarily rule out a diagnosis of DA&#44; since such sites can be reached by other means&#46; Lesions are sometimes distributed regularly around a central point&#44; such as a nipple or the navel&#44; and they are often located close to a previous lesion&#44; in an attempt to extend the original damage&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a></p><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The sites found in our series were as follows&#58; the face &#40;34&#46;5&#37;&#41;&#44; the lower limbs &#40;25&#37;&#41;&#44; the upper limbs &#40;16&#46;6&#37;&#41;&#44; and the hands &#40;15&#46;5&#37;&#41;&#46; The most common site in men was the legs &#40;51&#37;&#41; and in women the face &#40;40&#37;&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">If&#44; as Fabisch<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">64</span></a> has suggested&#44; the anatomical site of the lesion has a psychological significance that should be taken into account by the psychotherapist&#44; it is interesting to highlight the large number of women in our case series with lesions affecting the breasts &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0085">Fig&#46; 17</a>&#41;&#44; in some cases involving very destructive clinical forms&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0085"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">The Patient&#39;s Demeanor</span><p id="par0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Great importance is placed on the appearance and demeanor of the patient with DA&#46; Typical descriptions include anxiousness&#44; fine tremor of the facial muscles&#44; tearful eyes&#44; or on the contrary&#44; a poker face or Mona Lisa expression&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a> Some patients exhibit the calm of a tense person or a gaze with erotic connotations &#40;bedroom eyes&#41;&#46; Another remarkable characteristic seen in some patients is an attitude of great mental calm and complacency about their condition &#40;what the French call <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">la belle indifference</span>&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Young patients are sometimes accompanied by domineering parents or solicitous parents will accompany a difficult and precocious child&#46; The patient&#39;s interest in their lesions&#44; a tendency to display them and to express anger are all signs that should raise a suspicion of self-harm&#46;</p><p id="par0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The patient&#39;s expression can range from guilty&#44; furtive&#44; or unfriendly to one of obvious pretense&#46; Some patients may be reserved and uncommunicative or display signs of low intelligence&#44; although in Lyell&#39;s<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> view a high level of intelligence is also compatible with a diagnosis of DA&#44; while a mature personality is not&#46; Obviously none of these criteria is absolute&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Timing</span><p id="par0230" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Recurrence following periods of stress&#44; sleepwalking episodes&#44; the patient&#39;s failure to return after several visits&#44; the appearance of lesions on certain dates&#44; and lesions that appear overnight are all signs of self-harm&#46; Another circumstance that may suggest DA is when the recurrence of lesions coincides with a new job&#44; moving house&#44; a new school&#44; the death of a family member&#44; or any other event likely to cause mental stress&#44; depending on the age and circumstances of the patient&#46; In such cases&#44; the lesion can be interpreted as an attempt at nonverbal communication&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">64</span></a></p><p id="par0235" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The patients&#8217; inability to talk about the origin of their lesions or their lack of interest in the subject prevents the dermatologist from gaining a clear idea of the situation&#46; The patient&#39;s account of the lesions is sometimes so lacking in substance that Gandy<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> coined the term <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">hollow history</span>&#46; This perplexity about what is happening is expressed by the patient in bitter and hostile terms&#44; and new lesions will continue to appear as long as the conditions are favorable&#44; that is&#44; as long as the patient enjoys privacy and a supply of the necessary materials&#46;</p><p id="par0240" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Another term used in DA is <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">melodramatic prophecy</span>&#44; referring to predictions by patients concerning when and where new lesions will appear&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> Many patients with DA play games with their physicians informing them 12 or 24<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>hours before the lesions appear what sites will be affected&#44; explaining that the lesion will be preceded by heat&#44; burning&#44; or some other abnormal sensation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">63</span></a> In other cases lesions appear in a place where the dermatologist has suggested they might occur&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">61</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Assessment of Neurological Signs and Symptoms</span><p id="par0245" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Subjective sensations&#44; such as pain and burning&#44; may be exaggerated by patients with DA&#46; The patient&#39;s psychiatric history should be investigated to establish whether he or she has had any previous psychiatric diagnosis or has a family history of mental illness&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Study of Motives</span><p id="par0250" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the case of patients with a hysterical personality&#44; the motive for self-harm is to deceive&#44; but the underlying cause is solely the desire to be a sick person in order to escape personal obligations and inner conflicts<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">65&#44;66</span></a> even though there may be no apparent justification for the patient&#39;s conduct&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span></a> The possible motives for DA will be as varied as are human personalities and the situations of life itself&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> The motive can sometimes be a simple desire to arouse the sympathy of relatives or friends or an attempt to rationalize feelings of frustration or failure in life&#59; in other cases the behavior may be a result of conflict in the patient&#39;s social environment&#44; financial problems&#44; a lack of self-esteem&#44; atonement for guilt&#44; revenge&#44; or a way to escape responsibilities&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0340"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">68</span></a> Patients who create skin artifacts are also trying&#44; often unconsciously&#44; to attract the attention of those around them to an inner conflict for which they have no solution&#46;</p><p id="par0255" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Malingerers and fraudsters do not easily fool doctors<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10&#44;69</span></a> because the patient who merely contrives disease is an impostor&#59; in such cases the external incentive for the behavior must be found to confirm the diagnosis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> Such individuals typically use lesions to achieve a secondary goal&#58; to excuse failure&#44; attract sympathy&#44; escape responsibilities&#44; or simply to delay making a payment that is due&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">70</span></a> They may have criminal motives&#44; such as fraud or avoidance of a legal obligation&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span></a> or even use the situation to obtain privileges&#44; money&#44; or narcotics&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Histology</span><p id="par0260" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A fairly common characteristic in the histology of DA is that superficial involvement predominates over deeper involvement&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">61</span></a> Typically&#44; abnormal findings are restricted to the epidermis and no accumulation of lymphocytes or signs of vasculitis are found&#46; However&#44; the findings are not diagnostic and in most cases will depend on the method used to create the lesion&#46; A wide range of histologic findings have been reported&#44; including<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">71</span></a> erosion&#44; acanthotic epidermis&#44; chronic perivascular infiltrate&#44; and foreign-body reaction with birefringent material&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33&#44;34</span></a></p><p id="par0265" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Whenever possible a biopsy should be obtained because histologic findings have in many cases been fundamental to the diagnosis&#44; particularly when other skin conditions have been confused with DA&#46; Perhaps the dermatological diagnosis most often confused with DA is pyoderma gangrenosum&#46; DA has also been confused with pyoderma and vice versa&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0360"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">72&#8211;74</span></a> Conditions misdiagnosed as DA on the basis of clinical findings have been shown by histologic findings to be genuine panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0375"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">75</span></a> By contrast&#44; a case of DA on a girl&#39;s face mimicked a lymphoma&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0380"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76</span></a> while in other cases erosive lichen planus&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">77</span></a> cryoglobulinemia&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">78</span></a> and acquired hemophilia<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0395"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">79</span></a> were misdiagnosed as DA&#46; In other cases DA presented clinically as vasculitis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0400"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">80</span></a> and trigeminal trophic syndrome was misdiagnosed as DA due to the absence of abnormal histologic findings&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">81</span></a></p><p id="par0270" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is sometimes essential to use more complex histologic techniques&#44; such as X-ray analysis and spectrophotometry&#46; In one case&#44; spectrophotometry demonstrated that the cause of recurrent abscesses was cellulose&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0410"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">82</span></a> In an earlier case&#44; electron probe microanalysis was used to determine the presence and nature of factitious granulomas&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0415"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">83</span></a> Friction blisters at the level of the distal stratum granulosum have been reported&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0420"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">84</span></a> The presence of birefringent material and pseudocystic spaces replacing fat are important indications that will help to establish the diagnosis of factitious panniculitis&#46;</p><p id="par0275" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There is no doubt that DA lesions can mimic other skin processes&#46; McCormac<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span></a> makes the point that&#44; while it is clear that a patient cannot produce lesions that simulate psoriasis or lichen planus&#44; they can create lesions with a very obvious inflammatory substrate&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Differential Diagnosis</span><p id="par0280" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The dermatological condition most likely to cause problems in the differential diagnosis of DA is neurotic excoriation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0425"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">85</span></a> While the lesions in this condition are also self-inflicted&#44; the patients do not try to deceive the physician&#59; they are victims of an irresistible urge to pick&#44; scratch&#44; or otherwise manipulate the skin&#44; nails&#44; or hair&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> Another important difference between neurotic excoriation and DA is that patients with the former only use their nails while patients with DA may use a range of methods to damage the skin&#46;</p><p id="par0285" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">DA must be differentiated from the skin lesions produced by psychotic patients&#44; who may use their fingernails to excoriate the skin and cause ulcers that may become infected&#46; In such cases&#44; there is no doubt about the origin of the lesions because the patient causes them in view of other people&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Psychopathology</span><p id="par0290" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Experts concur that DA is a cutaneous manifestation of a psychiatric disorder and the condition is classified in the DSM-IV &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0295" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">One of the chief concerns of physicians who study DA is to identify a motive that would justify the behavior of patients who self-harm&#44; although some clinicians and dermatologists have minimized the role of the mind in the development and perpetuation of certain types of skin disease by applying the frivolous designation &#8220;nervous&#8221; and have failed to ensure that the patient receive appropriate psychiatric treatment&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0430"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">86</span></a> Fortunately&#44; the work of English&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0435"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">87</span></a> Cormia&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0440"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">88</span></a> and Zaidens<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0445"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">89</span></a> has led to a better understanding of psychosomatic conditions and improved treatment&#46;</p><p id="par0300" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There is no consensus about the personality type involved in DA&#46; Some authors consider that there are 2 types of patients&#44; some hysterical and others who are simply malingerers&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;25&#44;67&#44;70&#44;90</span></a> Others classify patients with DA as hysterical or psychotic&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0340"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">68&#44;86</span></a> Michelson<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">66</span></a> and Susskind<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0450"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">90</span></a> believe that all DA patients are hysterical&#44; while Koblenzer<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0455"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">91</span></a> considers them all to be borderline psychotic&#46; Factitious disease appears to be a kind of emotional safety valve in emotionally immature patients who typically present hysterical and masochistic characteristics&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Lesions may be produced when patients are in an altered psychogenic&#44; borderline&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0460"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92</span></a> or dissociative state&#44; so that they are not conscious of their actions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> The psychological importance of DA is that while the patients consciously produce the lesions&#44; they are unaware of the reasons for their self-destructive behavior&#46; Patients may exaggerate pain&#44; adopting the role of martyr&#44; and this posture is confirmed by their great capacity to take pleasure in tolerating pain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0430"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">86</span></a></p><p id="par0305" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although they cannot be considered to have psychotic personalities&#44; many patients with DA do have a borderline personality structure and are unable to develop mature relationships&#46; They use their lesions to maintain contact with others and to get the attention they desperately need to fill their emotional vacuum&#46; Another motive for self-harm may be a desire to do penance for unconscious sins or their behavior may be a displaced expression of infantile rage&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0455"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">91</span></a></p><p id="par0310" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Musaph<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0465"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">93</span></a> considers that patients with DA produce their symptoms unconsciously&#44; and psychiatric-psychological studies have revealed that the condition is in part due to aggressive sexual feelings directed against key figures in the patient&#39;s childhood&#46;</p><p id="par0315" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Zaidens<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0460"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92</span></a> is the author who has perhaps contributed the most psychological and psychiatric studies on DA&#46; She believes that self-inflicted dermatitis represents frustration&#44; resentment&#44; a demand for attention&#44; anxiety&#44; hostility&#44; and helplessness&#46; The self-destruction is proportional to the severity of the underlying emotional disturbance&#46;</p><p id="par0320" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Auto-destructive mechanisms develop in dependent and timid individuals who are unable to express themselves&#46; These patients have been conceived and reared in an environment fettered by emotional barriers&#44; and their growth has not been very important to their parents&#44; particularly their mothers&#46; Most patients with DA are adults in middle-age who have not achieved their life goals or have not achieved the levels of success typical of their class models&#44; in either social or economic terms&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0470"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">94</span></a> In psychological terms&#44; they use DA to get sympathy&#44; attention&#44; pity&#44; or compensation&#46; Moreover&#44; since patients with DA are unable to deal with their problems&#44; or to even admit that they have a problem&#44; the lesions provide them with an excuse they can use to rationalize their frustrations&#46;</p><p id="par0325" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">DA sometimes appears in the context of a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">folie &#224; deux</span> or shared dementia&#46; Shared dementia is a psychotic disorder characterized by the development of a hallucinatory pattern shared by 2 people&#46; Since those affected have a long-lasting intimate relationship&#44; the disorder is not uncommon in older adults&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0475"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">95&#44;96</span></a> It sometimes involves a mother and her children<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0485"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">97</span></a> and forms part of a syndrome of childhood abuse&#46;</p><p id="par0330" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Self-inflicted dermatoses are also observed in patients with anorexia nervosa&#46;</p><p id="par0335" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Factitious disease involves many paradoxes&#44; the most important of which is that the patient causes the physical symptoms and seeks a remedy for them&#46; The psychodynamic etiology of factitious disorders may be related to a history of abuse or neglect in childhood&#44; early emotional deprivation&#44; or lack of care&#46; All of these factors are found frequently in the history of these patients&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47&#44;98</span></a> Some authors have interpreted DA to be a disorder caused by borderline personality&#46; In their opinion&#44; the patient is both victim and punisher&#44; a person intent on capturing the attention of doctors while at the same time challenging them and devaluing their usefulness&#46; The additional benefit of playing the role of a sick person &#40;thereby obtaining attention&#44; support&#44; and sympathy while escaping responsibilities&#41; may also be important to these patients&#46; By simulating a disease patients can evade responsibilities and satisfy their dependence needs&#44; even though in DA this goal is achieved in a bizarre and self-destructive manner&#46;</p><p id="par0340" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">DA is not indicative of a particular personality organization&#44; but the patient&#39;s personality type is a prognostic factor&#44; as is the age of onset&#46; In adolescents the disorder is usually a cry for help&#46; The most common personality type in men with DA is paranoid while in women it is hysterical&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a></p><p id="par0345" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is currently thought that DA occurs in patients with a borderline personality disorder&#44; although an association has also been described with impulse control disorder<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0495"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">99</span></a> and obsessive compulsive disorder&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0500"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">100&#44;101</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Prognosis</span><p id="par0350" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Several follow-up studies have been carried out to assess the prognosis in patients with DA&#46; The first of these was undertaken by McCormack&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span></a> who sent a questionnaire to 10 patients&#46; Only 5 answered&#44; and the findings of that study indicated that the condition is more uncommon in patients over 25 years of age&#46; Subsequently&#44; Sneddon et al&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0505"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">101</span></a> who studied 43 patients &#40;38 women and 5 men&#41;&#44; reported that DA was only one incident in a long history of mental illness&#46; However&#44; 30&#37; of the patients in that study &#40;12 women and one man&#41; continued to self-inflict lesions or had other mental illnesses 12 years after the onset of DA&#46; Years later&#44; Haenel et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0490"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">98</span></a> invited 59 patients &#40;52 women and 7 men&#41; who had been diagnosed with DA to be reassessed&#46; Of the 36 women and 2 men who responded&#44; DA had resolved in 9&#44; but the others still had recurrent lesions&#46; Eight of the 36 women reported one or more suicide attempts&#46; In a follow-up study carried out in our own department&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26&#44;102</span></a> 61 patients who had been diagnosed with DA were invited to attend the clinic for reassessment&#46; Nine &#40;8 women and 1 man&#41; of the 34 patients who responded &#40;24 women and 10 men&#41; were still affected by DA&#44; an indication that this is a chronic and insidious disorder&#46;</p><p id="par0355" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Malignant transformation of a lesion was reported in a woman with DA who persistently excoriated a cholecystectomy scar over 40 years&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0515"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">103</span></a> Another similar case involved the development of a malignant tumor in an ulcer on the face of a 49-year-old man&#44; which the patient scratched compulsively&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0520"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">104</span></a> In both these cases&#44; the malignancy was a Marjolin ulcer&#44; a squamous cell carcinoma that arises in a chronic ulcer&#46; The most common complications of DA are related to infections&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0080" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Treatment</span><p id="par0360" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">DA probably represents one of the greatest therapeutic challenges in dermatology&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> Consoli<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> suggested that the 3 pillars of treatment should be <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">a&#41;</span> restructuring the patient&#39;s personality&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">b&#41;</span> drug treatment for the psychiatric condition&#44; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">c&#41;</span> medical treatment of the skin lesions&#46; A prolonged period during which a friendly relationship can be established with the patient may help to prevent abrupt termination of treatment when the patient is finally confronted with the real situation&#46; If this initial confrontation does not provoke a negative reaction or cause the patient to abandon treatment&#44; a mental health treatment plan can be implemented&#44; if possible including inpatient treatment&#46; A supportive approach avoiding condemnation is always preferable&#46; The dermatologist should be prepared for a prolonged course of treatment with repeated relapses and should never express disappointment or hostility over these failures&#46; The cost of treating DA in 1 patient over 5 years of consultations has been estimated at &#8364;64&#160;500&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0525"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">105</span></a></p><p id="par0365" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The treatment of factitious disease is often unsatisfactory&#44; whether it is managed by a dermatologist&#44; a psychiatrist&#44; or both&#46; Maybe the underlying reason is that these patients are in hiding and although they have to consult a physician because their symptoms are so obvious they do not wish to be cured&#46;</p><p id="par0370" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The ideal approach is to refer the patient to a psychiatrist&#44; but patients find such a referral incomprehensible because they believe they have a dermatological condition and do not understand why the dermatologist does not want to cure the lesions&#46; As Sneddon<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a> has said&#44; the treatment of patients with DA is difficult because&#44; although they need the help of a psychiatrist&#44; they reject this advice and any suggestion that their disease is not organic leads to a traumatic and conflictive visit after which they change doctors&#46; When it is impossible to convince the patient to consult a psychiatrist&#44; therapy with psychotropic drugs can be very helpful&#46; The following drugs have been shown to be useful&#58; selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0290"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">58</span></a> pimozide &#40;0&#46;5-1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;d&#41;&#44; aripiprazole &#40;2-5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;d&#41;&#44; or risperidone &#40;0&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;d&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0530"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">106&#44;107</span></a> Other measures and treatments that have been proposed include relaxation therapy&#44; anxiolytics&#44; antidepressants&#44; and low doses of second-generation antipsychotics&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0540"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">108</span></a>The skin lesions can be cured with the aid of occlusive dressings &#40;adhesive zinc or sometimes plaster wrap&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0530"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">106</span></a> Rapid healing of a bandaged ulcer that has previously proved refractory to all treatment is a sign of great diagnostic value&#44; as is the appearance of new lesions on unbandaged and&#44; in most cases&#44; previously unaffected areas&#46; As occlusive bandages can be pierced by sharp instruments and patients can inject substances through the dressing&#44; a sheet of aluminum foil may be included in the dressing to record the evidence of any such manipulations on the part of the patient&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0085" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Ethical Disclosures</span><span id="sec0090" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0110">Protection of human and animal subjects</span><p id="par0375" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors state that no experiments were performed on humans or animals for this investigation&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0095" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0115">Confidentiality of data</span><p id="par0380" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have followed the protocols of their workplace concerning the publication of patient data&#44; and that all the patients included in this study have been appropriately informed and gave their written informed consent to participate in this study&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0100" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0120">Right to privacy and informed consent</span><p id="par0385" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that no private patient data are disclosed in this article</p></span></span><span id="sec0105" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0125">Conflicts of Interests</span><p id="par0390" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Introduction"
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          "titulo" => "Definition"
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          "titulo" => "Clinical Features"
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          "titulo" => "Diagnosis"
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            0 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0030"
              "titulo" => "Shape and Configuration of Lesions"
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              "titulo" => "Distribution of the Lesions"
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            2 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0040"
              "titulo" => "The Patient&#39;s Demeanor"
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              "identificador" => "sec0045"
              "titulo" => "Timing"
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            4 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0050"
              "titulo" => "Assessment of Neurological Signs and Symptoms"
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              "identificador" => "sec0055"
              "titulo" => "Study of Motives"
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          "titulo" => "Histology"
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        10 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0065"
          "titulo" => "Differential Diagnosis"
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        11 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0070"
          "titulo" => "Psychopathology"
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        12 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0075"
          "titulo" => "Prognosis"
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          "titulo" => "Ethical Disclosures"
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            0 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0090"
              "titulo" => "Protection of human and animal subjects"
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            1 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0095"
              "titulo" => "Confidentiality of data"
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            2 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0100"
              "titulo" => "Right to privacy and informed consent"
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          "identificador" => "sec0105"
          "titulo" => "Conflicts of Interests"
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          "titulo" => "References"
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    "fechaRecibido" => "2011-11-23"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2012-10-14"
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          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec279229"
          "palabras" => array:3 [
            0 => "Dermatitis artefacta"
            1 => "Self-inflicted lesions"
            2 => "Factitious dermatitis"
          ]
        ]
      ]
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        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
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          "palabras" => array:3 [
            0 => "Dermatitis artefacta"
            1 => "Lesiones autoprovocadas"
            2 => "Dermatitis facticia"
          ]
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        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Dermatitis artefacta is a rarely diagnosed disorder that is often a source of perplexity and anxiety for dermatologists because they know less about the cause of this self-inflicted condition than the patients themselves&#46; It differs from other skin disorders in that diagnosis is made by exclusion rather than on the basis of histologic and biochemical findings and therefore involves a considerable investment of time and resources&#46; Based on the findings of a study of 201 patients diagnosed with dermatitis artefacta between 1976 and 2006&#44; we review the different clinical presentations of this skin disorder and discuss its diagnosis and treatment&#46; The series analyzed comprised 152 women and 49 men &#40;female to male ratio of 3&#46;1&#58;1&#41; with a mean age of 31&#46;2 years&#46; The patients were mostly single and had a low educational level and few or no job qualifications or skills&#46;</p>"
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        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La dermatitis artefacta &#40;DA&#41; es un diagn&#243;stico excepcional&#44; que genera perplejidad y ansiedad al dermat&#243;logo al encontrase ante una patolog&#237;a autoprovocada y de la que el paciente sabe m&#225;s que el m&#233;dico en cuanto a su etiolog&#237;a&#46; Al contrario que otras dermatosis en la que existen pruebas histol&#243;gicas o bioqu&#237;micas&#44; en la DA el diagn&#243;stico es de exclusi&#243;n lo que exige un gran consumo de recursos y de tiempo&#46; En el presente trabajo repasamos las diversas formas cl&#237;nicas&#44; criterios diagn&#243;sticos y manejo de estos pacientes y para ello nos basamos en la experiencia del estudio que realizamos de 201 casos de DA diagnosticados entre 1976 y 2006&#44; de los cuales 152 eran mujeres y 49 varones&#44; con una proporci&#243;n de mujeres&#47;varones de 3&#46;1&#47;1&#46; La edad media fue de 31&#46;2 a&#241;os y estaba mayoritariamente constituida por personas con escasa o nula cualificaci&#243;n laboral&#44; bajo nivel cultural y mayoritariamente solteros&#46;</p>"
      ]
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        "etiqueta" => "&#9734;"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Please cite this article as&#58; Rodr&#237;guez Pichardo A&#44; Garc&#237;a Bravo B&#46; Dermatitis artefacta&#58; revisi&#243;n&#46; Actas Dermosifiliogr&#46; 2013&#59;104&#58;854&#8211;866&#46;</p>"
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0105" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Source&#58; Gupta et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p>"
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                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>a&#41; Delirium&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>b&#41; Hallucinations&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>c&#41; Body dysmorphic disorder&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">2&#46; Disorders associated with self-inflicted dermatoses&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0115" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Source&#58; DSM-IV&#58; Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a></p>"
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                  \t\t\t\t">A&#46; Intentional production or feigning of physical &#40;but not psychological symptoms&#41; signs or symptoms&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Dermatitis artefacta&#46; Clinical study of 201 patients &#40;1976-2006&#41;"
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                        0 => array:2 [ …2]
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                    ]
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                        "titulo" => "21 World Congress of Dermatology"
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                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Psychodermatology"
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                      "Revista" => array:7 [
                        "tituloSerie" => "J Am Acad Dermatol"
                        "fecha" => "2000"
                        "volumen" => "43"
                        "paginaInicial" => "848"
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                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Psychotropic drugs in dermatology"
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                      "Revista" => array:5 [
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                        "paginaInicial" => "214"
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                      ]
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                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Psychodermatology&#58; an update"
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                        0 => array:2 [ …2]
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                  ]
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                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
                        "tituloSerie" => "J Am Acad Dermatol"
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                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Psychodermatology&#58; A guide to understanding common psychocutaneous disorders"
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                        "tituloSerie" => "Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry"
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Article information

ISSN: 15782190
Original language: English

DOI:10.1016/j.adengl.2012.10.018

The statistics are updated each day

Year/Month	Html	Pdf	Total

2024 November	64	37	101
2024 October	463	131	594
2024 September	322	80	402
2024 August	335	108	443
2024 July	316	67	383
2024 June	313	82	395
2024 May	279	94	373
2024 April	273	49	322
2024 March	293	89	382
2024 February	407	61	468
2024 January	369	69	438
2023 December	328	47	375
2023 November	413	66	479
2023 October	381	63	444
2023 September	418	61	479
2023 August	295	57	352
2023 July	275	141	416
2023 June	306	55	361
2023 May	342	63	405
2023 April	334	70	404
2023 March	300	71	371
2023 February	247	70	317
2023 January	236	63	299
2022 December	157	79	236
2022 November	120	65	185
2022 October	107	60	167
2022 September	99	95	194
2022 August	118	53	171
2022 July	117	64	181
2022 June	136	117	253
2022 May	248	95	343
2022 April	288	83	371
2022 March	327	82	409
2022 February	227	106	333
2022 January	321	114	435
2021 December	185	135	320
2021 November	236	83	319
2021 October	306	124	430
2021 September	218	106	324
2021 August	278	112	390
2021 July	231	104	335
2021 June	242	83	325
2021 May	365	109	474
2021 April	678	296	974
2021 March	278	166	444
2021 February	247	164	411
2021 January	171	69	240
2020 December	185	75	260
2020 November	168	48	216
2020 October	182	43	225
2020 September	169	64	233
2020 August	114	58	172
2020 July	135	55	190
2020 June	108	57	165
2020 May	109	58	167
2020 April	53	57	110
2020 March	37	56	93
2020 February	10	51	61
2020 January	5	29	34
2019 December	9	56	65
2019 November	5	19	24
2019 October	0	36	36
2019 September	7	41	48
2019 August	6	24	30
2019 July	7	29	36
2019 June	5	82	87
2019 May	9	158	167
2019 April	19	81	100
2019 March	4	22	26
2019 February	8	36	44
2019 January	9	27	36
2018 December	3	15	18
2018 November	13	13	26
2018 October	19	16	35
2018 September	7	15	22
2018 August	0	45	45
2018 July	0	20	20
2018 June	0	11	11
2018 May	0	9	9
2018 April	0	4	4
2018 March	29	15	44
2018 February	193	27	220
2018 January	159	23	182
2017 December	196	24	220
2017 November	201	40	241
2017 October	195	36	231
2017 September	177	24	201
2017 August	190	35	225
2017 July	189	25	214
2017 June	212	55	267
2017 May	206	31	237
2017 April	107	25	132
2017 March	126	53	179
2017 February	328	38	366
2017 January	196	28	224
2016 December	190	21	211
2016 November	294	49	343
2016 October	316	68	384
2016 September	431	37	468
2016 August	395	65	460
2016 July	211	30	241
2016 June	3	23	26
2016 May	7	20	27
2016 April	6	1	7
2016 March	9	8	17
2016 February	11	13	24
2016 January	4	5	9
2015 December	7	1	8
2015 November	12	2	14
2015 October	6	3	9
2015 September	2	2	4
2015 August	4	3	7
2015 July	445	14	459
2015 June	387	16	403
2015 May	440	30	470
2015 April	449	12	461
2015 March	443	5	448
2015 February	358	7	365
2015 January	322	7	329
2014 December	234	6	240
2014 November	251	7	258
2014 October	302	5	307
2014 September	271	2	273
2014 August	185	5	190
2014 July	203	7	210
2014 June	254	8	262
2014 May	205	15	220
2014 April	196	11	207
2014 March	191	8	199
2014 February	165	12	177
2014 January	93	9	102
2013 December	59	7	66
2013 November	1	2	3

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