New Developments in Erythropoietic Porphyrias | Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas

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Darwich, C. Herrero" "autores" => array:2 [ 0 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "E." "apellidos" => "Darwich" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "chevedarwich@yahoo.es" ] "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "¿" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "C." "apellidos" => "Herrero" ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "entidad" => "Departamento de Dermatología, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Novedades en las porfirias eritropoyéticas" ] ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0035" "etiqueta" => "Figure 7" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr7.jpeg" "Alto" => 738 "Ancho" => 1610 "Tamanyo" => 88004 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "A, Yellowish coloration of the teeth of a child with congenital erythropoietic porphyria. B, Red fluorescence (erythrodontia) can be readily observed under Wood light." ] ] ] "textoCompleto" => "Porphyrias are a group of metabolic diseases caused by deficiencies in the enzymes that participate in the heme synthesis pathway. Deposits of porphyrins or their precursors (depending on the substrate of the affected enzyme) trigger the clinical manifestations characteristic of each porphyria (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig. 1</a>). Until recently, mutations had been described in the 7 genes (aminolevulinate dehydratase [ALAD], porphobilinogen deaminase [PBGD], uroporphyrinogen synthase [UROS], uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase [UROD], coproporphyrinogen oxidase [CPOX], protoporphyrinogen oxidase [PPOX], and ferrochelatase [FECH]) responsible for the 7 recognized types of porphyria. However, in the past few years, other genes encoding proteins that are not essential for the heme synthesis pathway have been identified as causing other specific forms of porphyria.<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia>The porphyrias are a group of diseases in state of constant flux given the continuous advances in the field of porphyria genetics. These advances mainly involve the erythropoietic porphyrias: erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP) and congenital erythropoietic porphyria (CEP). Thus, in this update, the focus will be on recent developments in these 2 diseases, whose effects are mainly manifest in the skin and hematopoietic system.Erythropoietic ProtoporphyriaEPP is a hereditary disease characterized by cutaneous photosensitivity which develops at an early age and lasts throughout the life of the patient. It is an uncommon disorder, with a prevalence that varies between 1/143 000 in the United Kingdom and 1/75 000 in The Netherlands.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005">1,2</a> It is, however, the most common porphyria in children.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005">1,2</a>The disease is caused by partial deficiency in the activity of ferrochelatase, the last enzyme in the heme synthesis pathway. This functional deficiency is caused by mutations in the FECH gene, located on the long arm of chromosome 18 (specifically on locus 18q21.3).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015">3</a> To date, more than 120 different mutations have been identified as responsible for the disease. The ferrochelatase enzyme catalyzes the insertion of iron into the protoporphyrin IX (PfIX) ring. Accumulation of this molecule in erythrocytes, plasma, skin, and the liver is ultimately responsible for the clinical manifestations of EPP.These manifestations are different to those of other cutaneous porphyrias. EPP presents as acute photosensitivity with erythema, edema, and a painful burning sensation, very similar to sunburn, although it only requires between 1 and 30minutes of exposure to sunlight (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig. 2</a>). Patients are therefore severely limited in their outdoor activities, with a marked negative impact on quality of life.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005">1,4</a> Repeated exposure to sunlight can give rise to chronic lesions in sun-exposed areas. The lesions themselves, which appear as facial smallpox-like punctate scars and a waxy thickening of the skin, particularly in the perioral region and above the metacarpophalangeal joint, are not particularly disabling (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig. 3</a>).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005">1,5</a><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia>Given the intrinsic hydrophobia and liposolubility of PpIX, the molecule undergoes hepatic clearance in bile and feces. Excess PpIX in the bile canaliculi can cause cholestatic liver disease. Up to 25% of patients may experience cholelithiasis due to porphyrin gallstones, and up to 5% may develop severe liver disease leading to liver failure.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030">6</a> In such cases, liver transplantation may be the only option.Almost half the patients have anemia, which is normally mild and asymptomatic, with iron deficiency (microcytosis and hypochromia) refractory to iron supplementation.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035">7</a>In biochemical terms, EPP is characterized by increased concentrations of free PpIX (not bound to zinc) in red blood cells and plasma. The plasma fluoresces with a peak emission around 634nm. Unlike the case of other cutaneous porphyrias, porphyrins are not detected in urine as PpIX is only eliminated in feces.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040">8</a>In recent years, important molecular discoveries concerning EPP have been made, enabling the hereditary transmission mechanism in the autosomal forms to be elucidated. Subgroups of patients with genotypic and phenotypic characteristics have been identified and new forms of the disease caused by genes other than those that encode FECH have been found. The disease is therefore no longer considered monogenic but rather a heterogenous condition in which it is not always easy to establish a correlation between genotype and phenotype. Recent discoveries in the genetics of EPP have enabled a classification system based on molecular criteria to be designed, although this system has obvious clinical applications, particularly with regard to the development of severe liver disease (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig. 4</a>).<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia>Autosomal Dominant FormThe autosomal dominant form is the most common form EPP and accounts for almost 95% of cases. It is caused by the transmission of a mutation in 1 of the alleles of the FECH gene, leading to a quantitative or qualitative change in the ferrochelatase enzyme. The degree of residual enzymatic activity varies among patients and family members with the mutation, leading to a pattern of autosomal dominant inheritance with incomplete penetration. Thus, residual enzymatic is around 50% of normal activity in carriers of 1 of the 2 mutated alleles but less than 35% in symptomatic individuals.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045">9</a> For years, it was suspected that this additional decrease in enzymatic activity could be related to the presence of a common polymorphism in the nonmutated allele and that this would lead to expression of the gene below the critical threshold for manifestation of the disease.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0050">10,11</a> In 2002, Gouya et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">12</a> identified a polymorphism in intron 3 of the FECH gene, IVS3-48C, present in 98% of patients, as responsible for the low expression of the nonmutated FECH gene. The exchange of a single nucleotide, IVS3-48T>C, leads to a greater percentage of aberrant mRNA, which is rapidly degraded, in turn leading to decreased protein expression. This finding helped investigators understand the mechanism by which only some carriers of the mutated gene develop the disease. Thus, for EPP to develop, both the mutated allele and the low-expression allele (IVS3-48C) have to be transmitted. The prevalence of this allele varies greatly among different populations.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065">13</a> Thus, for example, the prevalence of 43% found in Japan is much higher than that found in western Africa (<1%).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0070">14,15</a> By contrast, the prevalence of the low-expression allele appears fairly constant throughout Europe, with values of 13%, 11%, and 10.5% in the United Kingdom, France, and Spain, respectively.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060">12,16,17</a>To date, it has not been possible to establish a relationship between specific mutations for the FECH gene and PpIX concentration, the age of onset of the disease, or the severity of the cutaneous manifestations. Nevertheless, there does seem to be a significant genotype-phenotype correlation between carriers of null-allele mutations (leading to complete loss of enzyme function) and severe liver disease.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0090">18,19</a>Autosomal Recessive FormApproximately 4% of patients with EPP are carriers of actual mutations in both alleles, and thus have the recessive form of the disease. Although only around 20 cases have been reported, this is the most common form of EPP in individuals who are not carriers of the low-expression allele.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080">16</a>In clinical terms, these patients have the same dermatologic characteristics as the heterozygous patients. However, the risk of developing severe liver disease and liver failure requiring transplantation is much higher; close monitoring of liver function and protoporphyrin concentrations in plasma and feces is therefore recommended (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig. 4</a>).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100">20</a>Recently, Holme et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105">21</a> described a subgroup of 9 patients with recessive EPP (rEPP) with a characteristic palmar keratoderma. In all patients, keratoderma presented in early childhood. In 7 of these patients, onset of the lesion occurred before diagnosis of EPP. In all cases, the keratoderma had well-defined edges, without an erythematous border, and minimal spread. The severity of hyperkeratosis was highly variable but worsened on exposure to sunlight in all cases, and so showed a seasonal variation. In addition, all patients had thickening of the skin at the knuckles, a sign present in 35% of patients with EPP. In the biochemical analysis, a lower PpIX concentration in erythrocytes was observed in these patients compared to patients without keratoderma. Almost all patients were carriers of missense mutations (responsible for certain changes in amino acids that lead to the formation of an abnormal protein that nevertheless conserves a certain degree of functionality). No genotype-phenotype relationship could, however, be established as these mutations had also been reported in patients without keratoderma. Nevertheless, the most important finding was the absence of patients with liver involvement and palmar keratoderma, in contrast to the high percentage of patients (up to 42%) with severe liver involvement in the group with rEPP but no keratoderma.Thus, the presence of palmar keratoderma at very young ages could be considered a clinical sign specific for rEPP, defining a subgroup at low risk of developing liver disease.Dominant X-linked FormIn 2008, Whatley et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110">22</a> described a new type of EPP in patients without mutations in the FECH gene. No FECH mutations were found in approximately 7% of the families with EPP studied at a molecular level. Within this subgroup, the investigators identified 8 families with members affected by a form of EPP clinically identical to that of patients with the dominant autosomal form (dEPP). However, differential characteristics were present: the PpIX concentration in erythrocytes was higher than in patients with dEPP; a much higher proportion of zinc PpIX was observed than in patients with the dEPP form; and a dominant hereditary pattern was linked to the X chromosome. This last finding prompted study of X-chromosome genes that encode important proteins in the heme biosynthetic pathway. This approach demonstrated that certain mutations in the aminolevulinic acid synthase 2 (ALAS2) gene were responsible for this new form of EPP.ALAS2 is a specific erythroid isoform of 5-aminolevulinate synthetase (ALAS) and is essential for synthesis of hemoglobin in erythroid cells. Until recently, only mutations responsible for hereditary sideroblastic anemias had been reported. In the study of Whatley et al.,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110">22</a> 2 different deletions were detected (c.1706-1709 delAGTG and c.1699-1700 delAT) in exon 11 of the ALAS2 gene. These are responsible for alterations in amino acids 19 and 20 of the C-terminal extremity of the enzyme that causes structural change in the protein and in turn enhances its function. This is the first time a function-enhancing mutation has been identified in one of the enzymes involved in heme biosynthesis. With the increased functionality of the ALAS2 enzyme, which is the limiting enzyme of the metabolic pathway in normal conditions, ferrochelatase becomes the new limiting enzyme, leading to a greater accumulation of zinc protoporphyrin.Of note is the high percentage of patients with X-linked EPP who have hepatic disease (17%). This suggests that X-linked EPP is associated with a greater risk of severe liver disease, by analogy with the autosomal recessive form.Thus, abnormalities in the C-terminal region of ALAS2 lead to production of protoporphyrins in sufficient excess to cause photosensitivity and liver damage, even though ferrochelatase activity is completely normal.Acquired Forms (Late Onset)Acquired EPP, with onset during adult life (age > 18 years) has been reported in relation with hematologic malignancies.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115">23</a> Although it is a very uncommon entity, it should be considered in patients with adult-onset severe acute photosensitivity.Fewer than 15 cases have been published and these were mainly associated with myelodysplastic syndromes, and the sideroblastic anemia subtype in particular.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120">24</a> Patients with myelodysplasia show genetic instability that leads to the formation of complex chromosomal abnormalities in the myelodysplastic cell clone. It has been postulated that the development of EPP in these cases could be the result of clonal expansion of hematopoietic cells containing just 1 allele of the FECH gene, as a result of deletion of 1 of the 2 copies on chromosome 18.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0120">24,25</a>Although the prevalence of liver involvement associated with this form of EPP is not known, at least 1 case of fatal liver disease has been published.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130">26</a>Treatment of Erythropoietic PorphyriaThe main therapeutic measure in EPP is still avoidance of sun exposure, even through window glass. Administration of high oral doses of beta-carotenes (30mg/kg/d) and the different types of phototherapy usually improve tolerance to light.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0135">27–29</a> More recently, melanocyte-stimulating hormone analogs, which also act as agonists of the melanocortin receptor, also appear to be useful as they enhance melanin synthesis, thereby increasing skin pigmentation and tolerance to natural light.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150">30</a>The utility of oral administration of iron in an attempt to reduce the anemia present in many patients with EPP is still the subject of debate as cutaneous photosensitivity may worsen in some cases.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155">31</a> However, in cases of severe anemia, endovenous administration of iron or even transfusion may be necessary.Cholestyramine (4-16g/d) can be used to accelerate the elimination of protoporphyrins by the biliary route, with the corresponding reduction in both plasma levels and risk of liver involvement.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160">32</a> Ursodeoxycholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid have also been used for this purpose.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165">33</a> However, the main complication of EPP is still cholestatic liver disease caused by protoporphyrin deposition, with the risk of acute irreversible liver failure requiring liver transplantation (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">Fig. 5</a>). Since the first liver transplantation in a patient with EPP in 1979,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170">34</a> more than 40 such transplantations have been reported, with an overall 1-year survival of 77% and a 5-year survival of 66%.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175">35</a> We should remember, however, there are 3 major complications: a) phototoxic reactions induced by operating room lights, which may be avoided by covering the lights with yellow filters that block radiation below 460nm<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180">36</a>; b) postoperative motor neuropathy with very high PpIX plasma levels<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0185">37</a>; and c) the recurrence of liver disease due to protoporphyria in the transplanted liver, which can be prevented by hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0175">35,38</a> Thus, in the event of severe and progressive liver disease, the possibility of a sequential liver and bone marrow transplantation should be considered or, ideally, bone marrow transplantation should be performed before liver failure occurs.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0175">35,39</a><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia>Congenital Erythropoietic PorphyriaCEP or Günther disease follows a recessive autosomal transmission pattern. The disease is extremely rare, with approximately 150 cases reported in the literature.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200">40</a> It is caused by deficient activity of uroporphyrinogen-III synthetase (UROS), which is encoded by the UROS gene on chromosome 10q25.3→q26.3.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0205">41</a>The clinical manifestations of CEP are heterogeneous and very variable, ranging from the onset of hydrops fetalis as a result of severe intrauterine hemolytic anemia to very mild forms in which there is hardly any skin involvement in adults (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">Fig. 6</a>). Passing of dark (reddish) urine in a neonate may be the first key sign for diagnosis, although this sign is also seen in other porphyrias such as hepatoerythropoietic porphyria and recessive forms of acute intermittent porphyria.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210">42</a><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0030"></elsevierMultimedia>In general, patients with CEP have substantial photosensitivity already in early childhood. The recurrent appearance of blisters and secondary infection leads to scarring, mutilations, and deformities. Facial and generalized hypertrichosis is often severe. Porphyrin deposits in the cornea and developing teeth can lead to visual impairment and erythrodontia, respectively (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig. 7</a>).<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0035"></elsevierMultimedia>Hemolytic anemia is common. Patients usually show anisocytosis, poikilocytosis, reticulocytosis, absence of haptoglobin, hyperbilirubinemia, and increased fecal urobilinogen. Secondary hypersplenism caused by inefficient erythropoiesis contributes to anemia and can also lead to leukopenia and thrombocytopenia. Anemia can be serious enough to require periodic transfusions.CEP is the only porphyria in which type I porphyrins (uroporphyrin I and coporphyrin I) are produced in excess and can be detected in urine (uroporphyrin I) or feces (coporphyrin I). Red blood cells contain large amounts of uroporphyrin I and, to a lesser degree, coporphyrin I and zinc protoporphyrin (bound to zinc).Forty-three different mutations of the UROS gene have been reported.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215">43</a> The vast majority of these are missense mutations. The p.C73R mutation in exon 4 is the most common mutation, with an allele frequency of 30%; the homozygous form is associated with a severe phenotype. However, the majority of the remaining mutations have been found in single families or, at most, just a few families of CEP patients. In addition, although it is generally accepted that the degree of residual in vivo activity of the UROS enzyme determines the severity of the disease, there have been reports of patients with the same mutations in the UROS gene with very different phenotypes.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220">44</a> As a result, it is very hard to establish a genotype-phenotype correlation in CEP. This strengthens the hypothesis that genes other than the UROS gene can act as gene modifiers in the disease. Two major recent discoveries illustrate this possibility. The first, published by Phillips et al.,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225">45</a> was the description of the first case of CEP attributed to a mutation in the gene encoding the erythroid-specific transcription factor, GATA binding protein 1 (GATA-1), on the X chromosome (Xp11.23). This transcription factor is essential to ensure functions such as normal erythropoiesis, appropriate expression of globin genes, and appropriate development of megakaryocytes. But, in addition, it acts by regulating the expression of the UROS gene in developing erythrocytes. Thus, GATA-1 mutations can be responsible for CEP in the absence of UROS mutations and so GATA-1 probably acts as another modifier gene in some patients with UROS mutations. The second relevant discovery, reported by To-Figueras et al.,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230">46</a> was that gain-of-function mutations in the ALAS2 gene, as described for X-linked EPP, may act as an aggravating factor resulting in more severe biochemical abnormalities and clinical manifestations in patients with UROS mutations. Thus, mutations in the ALAS2 gene corresponding to changes in the C-terminal region that increase enzymatic activity, along with mutations in the UROS gene that slow enzymatic kinetics at this level, lead to a greater accumulation of type I porphyrins and, as a result, more severe clinical manifestations.Finally, we should remember that there are cases of acquired CEP, with onset during adulthood. Indeed, around 5 cases of CEP with onset after 18 years of age have been reported.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0235">47,48</a> These tend to show milder clinical manifestations and are often associated with thrombocytopenia and myelodysplasia, by analogy with acquired EPP.Treatment of Congenital Erythropoietic PorphyriaThe 3 cornerstones of therapeutic management of patients with CEP are avoidance of photoexposure, meticulous care of cutaneous wounds, and blood transfusions and other hematologic support measures.Other symptomatic treatments include hydroxyurea to reduce porphyrin synthesis in bone marrow,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245">49</a> splenectomy to reduce the need for transfusions in patients with hypersplenism, and oral administration of activated charcoal to facilitate fecal excretion of porphyrins. However, many of these measures cannot be considered a long-term solution. Indeed, hematopoietic transplantation is the treatment of choice in patients with the most severe forms of the disease (transfusion-dependent patients).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250">50</a> There have been approximately 15 reports of patients with CEP who have received allogeneic bone marrow transplantation, in most cases with clinical and biochemical cure of the disease.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255">51</a> Although gene therapy is still not a real option for curing this porphyria, notable progress has been made in the experimental setting and so such an approach may prove useful in the medium term.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260">52</a>Conflicts of InterestThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest." "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:14 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xres97874" "titulo" => "Abstract" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec85030" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xres97875" "titulo" => "Resumen" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec85031" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Erythropoietic Protoporphyria" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Autosomal Dominant Form" ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Autosomal Recessive Form" ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "Dominant X-linked Form" ] 8 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Acquired Forms (Late Onset)" ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "Treatment of Erythropoietic Porphyria" ] 10 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0035" "titulo" => "Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria" ] 11 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0040" "titulo" => "Treatment of Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria" ] 12 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0045" "titulo" => "Conflicts of Interest" ] 13 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2011-09-15" "fechaAceptado" => "2011-12-27" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec85030" "palabras" => array:4 [ 0 => "Porphyrias" 1 => "Erythropoietic porphyrias" 2 => "Erythropoietic protoporphyrias" 3 => "Congenital erythropoietic porphyrias" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec85031" "palabras" => array:4 [ 0 => "Porfirias" 1 => "Porfirias eritropoyéticas" 2 => "Protoporfiria eritropoyética" 3 => "Porfiria eritropoyética congénita" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "In recent years, important advances have been made in our understanding of the genetics of porphyrias, particularly with respect to erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP) and congenital erythropoietic porphyria (CEP), 2 forms of erythropoietic porphyria no longer considered to be monogenic. The identification of mutations in genes not previously associated with these disorders as causative factors or modulators of severity has helped to explain the presence of genotypic and phenotypic differences between patients carrying the same mutations. These advances have also led to the identification of causative genetic defects in patients who, based on molecular studies, had no mutations in the uroporphyrinogen III synthase gene UROS (in CEP) or in the ferrochelatase gene FECH (in EPP). Better understanding and characterization of the genetics of porphyrias will allow us to determine genotypic and phenotypic correlations and improve the molecular classification of these diseases, which will have both practical and prognostic implications." ] "es" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "En los últimos años se han producido importantes avances en la genética de las porfirias y, concretamente, en las porfirias eritropoyéticas – protoporfiria eritropoyética (PPE) y porfiria eritropoyética congénita (PEC) -, que han dado lugar a una nueva concepción de las mismas como enfermedades no monogénicas. Se han identificado mutaciones en nuevos genes como responsables o modificadores de la gravedad de la porfiria, permitiendo esclarecer las discrepancias geno-fenotípicas observadas entre pacientes portadores de las mismas mutaciones, así como identificar el defecto genético responsable de algunos casos de porfiria en los que los estudios moleculares del gen uroporfirinógeno sintetasa (UROS) en la PEC o del gen ferroquelatasa (FECH) en la PPE, no identificaban ninguna mutación. La mejor caracterización y conocimiento de la genética de estas enfermedades permitirá establecer cuadros geno-fenotípicos concretos y realizar una clasificación molecular con implicaciones prácticas y pronósticas." ] ] "NotaPie" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "☆" "nota" => "Please cite this article as: Darwich E, Herrero C. Novedades en las porfirias eritropoyéticas. Actas Dermosifiliogr. 2013;104:212–9." ] ] "multimedia" => array:7 [ 0 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 1674 "Ancho" => 2340 "Tamanyo" => 272954 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Classification of the porphyrias. CoA indicates coenzyme A; ALADD, porphyria arising from aminolevulinate dehydratase deficiency; AIP, acute intermittent porphyria; CEP, congenital erythropoietic porphyria; UP I, uroporphyrin I; LCP, late cutaneous porphyria; HEP, hepatoerythropoietic porphyria; CP I, coporphyrin isomer I; HCP, hereditary coproporphyria; VP, variegate porphyria; EPP: erythropoietic protoporphyria." ] ] 1 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0010" "etiqueta" => "Figure 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 1058 "Ancho" => 1585 "Tamanyo" => 251444 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Erythema and edema after brief exposure to sunlight." ] ] 2 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0015" "etiqueta" => "Figure 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr3.jpeg" "Alto" => 1188 "Ancho" => 1585 "Tamanyo" => 207171 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Localized waxy thickening in the interphalangeal and metacarpophalangeal joints as a chronic cutaneous sign of erythropoietic protoporphyrin." ] ] 3 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0020" "etiqueta" => "Figure 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg" "Alto" => 1465 "Ancho" => 2653 "Tamanyo" => 287670 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Molecular classification of erythropoietic protoporphyria. EPP indicates erythropoietic protoporphyria; PK, palmar keratoderma; ALAS2, aminolevulinic acid synthase 2; PpIX, protoporphyrin IX." ] ] 4 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0025" "etiqueta" => "Figure 5" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr5.jpeg" "Alto" => 1088 "Ancho" => 1667 "Tamanyo" => 202932 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Intracanalicular deposits of pigmented material (protoporphyrins) in a patient with erythropoietic protoporphyria and cholestatic liver disease." ] ] 5 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0030" "etiqueta" => "Figure 6" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr6.jpeg" "Alto" => 1250 "Ancho" => 1667 "Tamanyo" => 220885 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Male patient with a mild form of congenital erythropoietic protoporphyria. Note hypertrichosis is the only sign of the disease." ] ] 6 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0035" "etiqueta" => "Figure 7" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr7.jpeg" "Alto" => 738 "Ancho" => 1610 "Tamanyo" => 88004 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "A, Yellowish coloration of the teeth of a child with congenital erythropoietic porphyria. 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Novelties in Dermatology

New Developments in Erythropoietic Porphyrias

Novedades en las porfirias eritropoyéticas

E. Darwich

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chevedarwich@yahoo.es

Corresponding author.

, C. Herrero

Departamento de Dermatología, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain

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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Porphyrias are a group of metabolic diseases caused by deficiencies in the enzymes that participate in the heme synthesis pathway&#46; Deposits of porphyrins or their precursors &#40;depending on the substrate of the affected enzyme&#41; trigger the clinical manifestations characteristic of each porphyria &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#46; Until recently&#44; mutations had been described in the 7 genes &#40;aminolevulinate dehydratase &#91;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ALAD</span>&#93;&#44; porphobilinogen deaminase &#91;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">PBGD</span>&#93;&#44; uroporphyrinogen synthase &#91;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">UROS</span>&#93;&#44; uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase &#91;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">UROD</span>&#93;&#44; coproporphyrinogen oxidase &#91;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">CPOX</span>&#93;&#44; protoporphyrinogen oxidase &#91;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">PPOX</span>&#93;&#44; and ferrochelatase &#91;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">FECH</span>&#93;&#41; responsible for the 7 recognized types of porphyria&#46; However&#44; in the past few years&#44; other genes encoding proteins that are not essential for the heme synthesis pathway have been identified as causing other specific forms of porphyria&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The porphyrias are a group of diseases in state of constant flux given the continuous advances in the field of porphyria genetics&#46; These advances mainly involve the erythropoietic porphyrias&#58; erythropoietic protoporphyria &#40;EPP&#41; and congenital erythropoietic porphyria &#40;CEP&#41;&#46; Thus&#44; in this update&#44; the focus will be on recent developments in these 2 diseases&#44; whose effects are mainly manifest in the skin and hematopoietic system&#46;</p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Erythropoietic Protoporphyria</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">EPP is a hereditary disease characterized by cutaneous photosensitivity which develops at an early age and lasts throughout the life of the patient&#46; It is an uncommon disorder&#44; with a prevalence that varies between 1&#47;143&#160;000 in the United Kingdom and 1&#47;75&#160;000 in The Netherlands&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2</span></a> It is&#44; however&#44; the most common porphyria in children&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The disease is caused by partial deficiency in the activity of ferrochelatase&#44; the last enzyme in the heme synthesis pathway&#46; This functional deficiency is caused by mutations in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">FECH</span> gene&#44; located on the long arm of chromosome 18 &#40;specifically on locus 18q21&#46;3&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> To date&#44; more than 120 different mutations have been identified as responsible for the disease&#46; The ferrochelatase enzyme catalyzes the insertion of iron into the protoporphyrin IX &#40;PfIX&#41; ring&#46; Accumulation of this molecule in erythrocytes&#44; plasma&#44; skin&#44; and the liver is ultimately responsible for the clinical manifestations of EPP&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">These manifestations are different to those of other cutaneous porphyrias&#46; EPP presents as acute photosensitivity with erythema&#44; edema&#44; and a painful burning sensation&#44; very similar to sunburn&#44; although it only requires between 1 and 30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>minutes of exposure to sunlight &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#46; Patients are therefore severely limited in their outdoor activities&#44; with a marked negative impact on quality of life&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;4</span></a> Repeated exposure to sunlight can give rise to chronic lesions in sun-exposed areas&#46; The lesions themselves&#44; which appear as facial smallpox-like punctate scars and a waxy thickening of the skin&#44; particularly in the perioral region and above the metacarpophalangeal joint&#44; are not particularly disabling &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig&#46; 3</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;5</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Given the intrinsic hydrophobia and liposolubility of PpIX&#44; the molecule undergoes hepatic clearance in bile and feces&#46; Excess PpIX in the bile canaliculi can cause cholestatic liver disease&#46; Up to 25&#37; of patients may experience cholelithiasis due to porphyrin gallstones&#44; and up to 5&#37; may develop severe liver disease leading to liver failure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> In such cases&#44; liver transplantation may be the only option&#46;</p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Almost half the patients have anemia&#44; which is normally mild and asymptomatic&#44; with iron deficiency &#40;microcytosis and hypochromia&#41; refractory to iron supplementation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a></p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In biochemical terms&#44; EPP is characterized by increased concentrations of free PpIX &#40;not bound to zinc&#41; in red blood cells and plasma&#46; The plasma fluoresces with a peak emission around 634<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>nm&#46; Unlike the case of other cutaneous porphyrias&#44; porphyrins are not detected in urine as PpIX is only eliminated in feces&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a></p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In recent years&#44; important molecular discoveries concerning EPP have been made&#44; enabling the hereditary transmission mechanism in the autosomal forms to be elucidated&#46; Subgroups of patients with genotypic and phenotypic characteristics have been identified and new forms of the disease caused by genes other than those that encode FECH have been found&#46; The disease is therefore no longer considered monogenic but rather a heterogenous condition in which it is not always easy to establish a correlation between genotype and phenotype&#46; Recent discoveries in the genetics of EPP have enabled a classification system based on molecular criteria to be designed&#44; although this system has obvious clinical applications&#44; particularly with regard to the development of severe liver disease &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Autosomal Dominant Form</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The autosomal dominant form is the most common form EPP and accounts for almost 95&#37; of cases&#46; It is caused by the transmission of a mutation in 1 of the alleles of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">FECH</span> gene&#44; leading to a quantitative or qualitative change in the ferrochelatase enzyme&#46; The degree of residual enzymatic activity varies among patients and family members with the mutation&#44; leading to a pattern of autosomal dominant inheritance with incomplete penetration&#46; Thus&#44; residual enzymatic is around 50&#37; of normal activity in carriers of 1 of the 2 mutated alleles but less than 35&#37; in symptomatic individuals&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> For years&#44; it was suspected that this additional decrease in enzymatic activity could be related to the presence of a common polymorphism in the nonmutated allele and that this would lead to expression of the gene below the critical threshold for manifestation of the disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10&#44;11</span></a> In 2002&#44; Gouya et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> identified a polymorphism in intron 3 of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">FECH</span> gene&#44; IVS3-48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>C&#44; present in 98&#37; of patients&#44; as responsible for the low expression of the nonmutated <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">FECH</span> gene&#46; The exchange of a single nucleotide&#44; IVS3-48T&#62;C&#44; leads to a greater percentage of aberrant mRNA&#44; which is rapidly degraded&#44; in turn leading to decreased protein expression&#46; This finding helped investigators understand the mechanism by which only some carriers of the mutated gene develop the disease&#46; Thus&#44; for EPP to develop&#44; both the mutated allele and the low-expression allele &#40;IVS3-48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>C&#41; have to be transmitted&#46; The prevalence of this allele varies greatly among different populations&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> Thus&#44; for example&#44; the prevalence of 43&#37; found in Japan is much higher than that found in western Africa &#40;&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14&#44;15</span></a> By contrast&#44; the prevalence of the low-expression allele appears fairly constant throughout Europe&#44; with values of 13&#37;&#44; 11&#37;&#44; and 10&#46;5&#37; in the United Kingdom&#44; France&#44; and Spain&#44; respectively&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#44;16&#44;17</span></a></p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">To date&#44; it has not been possible to establish a relationship between specific mutations for the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">FECH</span> gene and PpIX concentration&#44; the age of onset of the disease&#44; or the severity of the cutaneous manifestations&#46; Nevertheless&#44; there does seem to be a significant genotype-phenotype correlation between carriers of null-allele mutations &#40;leading to complete loss of enzyme function&#41; and severe liver disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#44;19</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Autosomal Recessive Form</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Approximately 4&#37; of patients with EPP are carriers of actual mutations in both alleles&#44; and thus have the recessive form of the disease&#46; Although only around 20 cases have been reported&#44; this is the most common form of EPP in individuals who are not carriers of the low-expression allele&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a></p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In clinical terms&#44; these patients have the same dermatologic characteristics as the heterozygous patients&#46; However&#44; the risk of developing severe liver disease and liver failure requiring transplantation is much higher&#59; close monitoring of liver function and protoporphyrin concentrations in plasma and feces is therefore recommended &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a></p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Recently&#44; Holme et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> described a subgroup of 9 patients with recessive EPP &#40;rEPP&#41; with a characteristic palmar keratoderma&#46; In all patients&#44; keratoderma presented in early childhood&#46; In 7 of these patients&#44; onset of the lesion occurred before diagnosis of EPP&#46; In all cases&#44; the keratoderma had well-defined edges&#44; without an erythematous border&#44; and minimal spread&#46; The severity of hyperkeratosis was highly variable but worsened on exposure to sunlight in all cases&#44; and so showed a seasonal variation&#46; In addition&#44; all patients had thickening of the skin at the knuckles&#44; a sign present in 35&#37; of patients with EPP&#46; In the biochemical analysis&#44; a lower PpIX concentration in erythrocytes was observed in these patients compared to patients without keratoderma&#46; Almost all patients were carriers of missense mutations &#40;responsible for certain changes in amino acids that lead to the formation of an abnormal protein that nevertheless conserves a certain degree of functionality&#41;&#46; No genotype-phenotype relationship could&#44; however&#44; be established as these mutations had also been reported in patients without keratoderma&#46; Nevertheless&#44; the most important finding was the absence of patients with liver involvement and palmar keratoderma&#44; in contrast to the high percentage of patients &#40;up to 42&#37;&#41; with severe liver involvement in the group with rEPP but no keratoderma&#46;</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Thus&#44; the presence of palmar keratoderma at very young ages could be considered a clinical sign specific for rEPP&#44; defining a subgroup at low risk of developing liver disease&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Dominant X-linked Form</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In 2008&#44; Whatley et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a> described a new type of EPP in patients without mutations in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">FECH</span> gene&#46; No <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">FECH</span> mutations were found in approximately 7&#37; of the families with EPP studied at a molecular level&#46; Within this subgroup&#44; the investigators identified 8 families with members affected by a form of EPP clinically identical to that of patients with the dominant autosomal form &#40;dEPP&#41;&#46; However&#44; differential characteristics were present&#58; the PpIX concentration in erythrocytes was higher than in patients with dEPP&#59; a much higher proportion of zinc PpIX was observed than in patients with the dEPP form&#59; and a dominant hereditary pattern was linked to the X chromosome&#46; This last finding prompted study of X-chromosome genes that encode important proteins in the heme biosynthetic pathway&#46; This approach demonstrated that certain mutations in the aminolevulinic acid synthase 2 &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ALAS2</span>&#41; gene were responsible for this new form of EPP&#46;</p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">ALAS2 is a specific erythroid isoform of 5-aminolevulinate synthetase &#40;ALAS&#41; and is essential for synthesis of hemoglobin in erythroid cells&#46; Until recently&#44; only mutations responsible for hereditary sideroblastic anemias had been reported&#46; In the study of Whatley et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a> 2 different deletions were detected &#40;c&#46;1706-1709 delAGTG and c&#46;1699-1700 delAT&#41; in exon 11 of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ALAS2</span> gene&#46; These are responsible for alterations in amino acids 19 and 20 of the C-terminal extremity of the enzyme that causes structural change in the protein and in turn enhances its function&#46; This is the first time a function-enhancing mutation has been identified in one of the enzymes involved in heme biosynthesis&#46; With the increased functionality of the ALAS2 enzyme&#44; which is the limiting enzyme of the metabolic pathway in normal conditions&#44; ferrochelatase becomes the new limiting enzyme&#44; leading to a greater accumulation of zinc protoporphyrin&#46;</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Of note is the high percentage of patients with X-linked EPP who have hepatic disease &#40;17&#37;&#41;&#46; This suggests that X-linked EPP is associated with a greater risk of severe liver disease&#44; by analogy with the autosomal recessive form&#46;</p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Thus&#44; abnormalities in the C-terminal region of ALAS2 lead to production of protoporphyrins in sufficient excess to cause photosensitivity and liver damage&#44; even though ferrochelatase activity is completely normal&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Acquired Forms &#40;Late Onset&#41;</span><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Acquired EPP&#44; with onset during adult life &#40;age&#160;&#62;&#160;18 years&#41; has been reported in relation with hematologic malignancies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> Although it is a very uncommon entity&#44; it should be considered in patients with adult-onset severe acute photosensitivity&#46;</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fewer than 15 cases have been published and these were mainly associated with myelodysplastic syndromes&#44; and the sideroblastic anemia subtype in particular&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> Patients with myelodysplasia show genetic instability that leads to the formation of complex chromosomal abnormalities in the myelodysplastic cell clone&#46; It has been postulated that the development of EPP in these cases could be the result of clonal expansion of hematopoietic cells containing just 1 allele of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">FECH</span> gene&#44; as a result of deletion of 1 of the 2 copies on chromosome 18&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24&#44;25</span></a></p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although the prevalence of liver involvement associated with this form of EPP is not known&#44; at least 1 case of fatal liver disease has been published&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Treatment of Erythropoietic Porphyria</span><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The main therapeutic measure in EPP is still avoidance of sun exposure&#44; even through window glass&#46; Administration of high oral doses of beta-carotenes &#40;30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg&#47;d&#41; and the different types of phototherapy usually improve tolerance to light&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27&#8211;29</span></a> More recently&#44; melanocyte-stimulating hormone analogs&#44; which also act as agonists of the melanocortin receptor&#44; also appear to be useful as they enhance melanin synthesis&#44; thereby increasing skin pigmentation and tolerance to natural light&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a></p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The utility of oral administration of iron in an attempt to reduce the anemia present in many patients with EPP is still the subject of debate as cutaneous photosensitivity may worsen in some cases&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> However&#44; in cases of severe anemia&#44; endovenous administration of iron or even transfusion may be necessary&#46;</p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Cholestyramine &#40;4-16<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&#47;d&#41; can be used to accelerate the elimination of protoporphyrins by the biliary route&#44; with the corresponding reduction in both plasma levels and risk of liver involvement&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a> Ursodeoxycholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid have also been used for this purpose&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> However&#44; the main complication of EPP is still cholestatic liver disease caused by protoporphyrin deposition&#44; with the risk of acute irreversible liver failure requiring liver transplantation &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">Fig&#46; 5</a>&#41;&#46; Since the first liver transplantation in a patient with EPP in 1979&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> more than 40 such transplantations have been reported&#44; with an overall 1-year survival of 77&#37; and a 5-year survival of 66&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> We should remember&#44; however&#44; there are 3 major complications&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">a&#41;</span> phototoxic reactions induced by operating room lights&#44; which may be avoided by covering the lights with yellow filters that block radiation below 460<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>nm<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a>&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">b&#41;</span> postoperative motor neuropathy with very high PpIX plasma levels<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a>&#59; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">c&#41;</span> the recurrence of liver disease due to protoporphyria in the transplanted liver&#44; which can be prevented by hematopoietic stem cell transplantation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35&#44;38</span></a> Thus&#44; in the event of severe and progressive liver disease&#44; the possibility of a sequential liver and bone marrow transplantation should be considered or&#44; ideally&#44; bone marrow transplantation should be performed before liver failure occurs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35&#44;39</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria</span><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">CEP or G&#252;nther disease follows a recessive autosomal transmission pattern&#46; The disease is extremely rare&#44; with approximately 150 cases reported in the literature&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a> It is caused by deficient activity of uroporphyrinogen-III synthetase &#40;UROS&#41;&#44; which is encoded by the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">UROS</span> gene on chromosome 10q25&#46;3&#8594;q26&#46;3&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a></p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The clinical manifestations of CEP are heterogeneous and very variable&#44; ranging from the onset of hydrops fetalis as a result of severe intrauterine hemolytic anemia to very mild forms in which there is hardly any skin involvement in adults &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">Fig&#46; 6</a>&#41;&#46; Passing of dark &#40;reddish&#41; urine in a neonate may be the first key sign for diagnosis&#44; although this sign is also seen in other porphyrias such as hepatoerythropoietic porphyria and recessive forms of acute intermittent porphyria&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0030"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In general&#44; patients with CEP have substantial photosensitivity already in early childhood&#46; The recurrent appearance of blisters and secondary infection leads to scarring&#44; mutilations&#44; and deformities&#46; Facial and generalized hypertrichosis is often severe&#46; Porphyrin deposits in the cornea and developing teeth can lead to visual impairment and erythrodontia&#44; respectively &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig&#46; 7</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0035"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Hemolytic anemia is common&#46; Patients usually show anisocytosis&#44; poikilocytosis&#44; reticulocytosis&#44; absence of haptoglobin&#44; hyperbilirubinemia&#44; and increased fecal urobilinogen&#46; Secondary hypersplenism caused by inefficient erythropoiesis contributes to anemia and can also lead to leukopenia and thrombocytopenia&#46; Anemia can be serious enough to require periodic transfusions&#46;</p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">CEP is the only porphyria in which type I porphyrins &#40;uroporphyrin I and coporphyrin I&#41; are produced in excess and can be detected in urine &#40;uroporphyrin I&#41; or feces &#40;coporphyrin I&#41;&#46; Red blood cells contain large amounts of uroporphyrin I and&#44; to a lesser degree&#44; coporphyrin I and zinc protoporphyrin &#40;bound to zinc&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Forty-three different mutations of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">UROS</span> gene have been reported&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a> The vast majority of these are missense mutations&#46; The p&#46;C73R mutation in exon 4 is the most common mutation&#44; with an allele frequency of 30&#37;&#59; the homozygous form is associated with a severe phenotype&#46; However&#44; the majority of the remaining mutations have been found in single families or&#44; at most&#44; just a few families of CEP patients&#46; In addition&#44; although it is generally accepted that the degree of residual in vivo activity of the UROS enzyme determines the severity of the disease&#44; there have been reports of patients with the same mutations in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">UROS</span> gene with very different phenotypes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44</span></a> As a result&#44; it is very hard to establish a genotype-phenotype correlation in CEP&#46; This strengthens the hypothesis that genes other than the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">UROS</span> gene can act as gene modifiers in the disease&#46; Two major recent discoveries illustrate this possibility&#46; The first&#44; published by Phillips et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a> was the description of the first case of CEP attributed to a mutation in the gene encoding the erythroid-specific transcription factor&#44; GATA binding protein 1 &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">GATA-1</span>&#41;&#44; on the X chromosome &#40;Xp11&#46;23&#41;&#46; This transcription factor is essential to ensure functions such as normal erythropoiesis&#44; appropriate expression of globin genes&#44; and appropriate development of megakaryocytes&#46; But&#44; in addition&#44; it acts by regulating the expression of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">UROS</span> gene in developing erythrocytes&#46; Thus&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">GATA-1</span> mutations can be responsible for CEP in the absence of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">UROS</span> mutations and so <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">GATA-1</span> probably acts as another modifier gene in some patients with <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">UROS</span> mutations&#46; The second relevant discovery&#44; reported by To-Figueras et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a> was that gain-of-function mutations in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ALAS2</span> gene&#44; as described for X-linked EPP&#44; may act as an aggravating factor resulting in more severe biochemical abnormalities and clinical manifestations in patients with <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">UROS</span> mutations&#46; Thus&#44; mutations in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ALAS2</span> gene corresponding to changes in the C-terminal region that increase enzymatic activity&#44; along with mutations in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">UROS</span> gene that slow enzymatic kinetics at this level&#44; lead to a greater accumulation of type I porphyrins and&#44; as a result&#44; more severe clinical manifestations&#46;</p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Finally&#44; we should remember that there are cases of acquired CEP&#44; with onset during adulthood&#46; Indeed&#44; around 5 cases of CEP with onset after 18 years of age have been reported&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47&#44;48</span></a> These tend to show milder clinical manifestations and are often associated with thrombocytopenia and myelodysplasia&#44; by analogy with acquired EPP&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Treatment of Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria</span><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The 3 cornerstones of therapeutic management of patients with CEP are avoidance of photoexposure&#44; meticulous care of cutaneous wounds&#44; and blood transfusions and other hematologic support measures&#46;</p><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Other symptomatic treatments include hydroxyurea to reduce porphyrin synthesis in bone marrow&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49</span></a> splenectomy to reduce the need for transfusions in patients with hypersplenism&#44; and oral administration of activated charcoal to facilitate fecal excretion of porphyrins&#46; However&#44; many of these measures cannot be considered a long-term solution&#46; Indeed&#44; hematopoietic transplantation is the treatment of choice in patients with the most severe forms of the disease &#40;transfusion-dependent patients&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50</span></a> There have been approximately 15 reports of patients with CEP who have received allogeneic bone marrow transplantation&#44; in most cases with clinical and biochemical cure of the disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">51</span></a> Although gene therapy is still not a real option for curing this porphyria&#44; notable progress has been made in the experimental setting and so such an approach may prove useful in the medium term&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle">Conflicts of Interest</span><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "identificador" => "xres97874"
          "titulo" => "Abstract"
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          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec85030"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
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          "identificador" => "xres97875"
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          "titulo" => "Palabras clave"
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        4 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0005"
          "titulo" => "Erythropoietic Protoporphyria"
        ]
        5 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0010"
          "titulo" => "Autosomal Dominant Form"
        ]
        6 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0015"
          "titulo" => "Autosomal Recessive Form"
        ]
        7 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0020"
          "titulo" => "Dominant X-linked Form"
        ]
        8 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0025"
          "titulo" => "Acquired Forms &#40;Late Onset&#41;"
        ]
        9 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0030"
          "titulo" => "Treatment of Erythropoietic Porphyria"
        ]
        10 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0035"
          "titulo" => "Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria"
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        11 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0040"
          "titulo" => "Treatment of Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria"
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        12 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0045"
          "titulo" => "Conflicts of Interest"
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    "fechaRecibido" => "2011-09-15"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2011-12-27"
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          "palabras" => array:4 [
            0 => "Porphyrias"
            1 => "Erythropoietic porphyrias"
            2 => "Erythropoietic protoporphyrias"
            3 => "Congenital erythropoietic porphyrias"
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          "titulo" => "Palabras clave"
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          "palabras" => array:4 [
            0 => "Porfirias"
            1 => "Porfirias eritropoy&#233;ticas"
            2 => "Protoporfiria eritropoy&#233;tica"
            3 => "Porfiria eritropoy&#233;tica cong&#233;nita"
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        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">In recent years&#44; important advances have been made in our understanding of the genetics of porphyrias&#44; particularly with respect to erythropoietic protoporphyria &#40;EPP&#41; and congenital erythropoietic porphyria &#40;CEP&#41;&#44; 2 forms of erythropoietic porphyria no longer considered to be monogenic&#46; The identification of mutations in genes not previously associated with these disorders as causative factors or modulators of severity has helped to explain the presence of genotypic and phenotypic differences between patients carrying the same mutations&#46; These advances have also led to the identification of causative genetic defects in patients who&#44; based on molecular studies&#44; had no mutations in the uroporphyrinogen III synthase gene <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">UROS</span> &#40;in CEP&#41; or in the ferrochelatase gene <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">FECH</span> &#40;in EPP&#41;&#46; Better understanding and characterization of the genetics of porphyrias will allow us to determine genotypic and phenotypic correlations and improve the molecular classification of these diseases&#44; which will have both practical and prognostic implications&#46;</p>"
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        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">En los &#250;ltimos a&#241;os se han producido importantes avances en la gen&#233;tica de las porfirias y&#44; concretamente&#44; en las porfirias eritropoy&#233;ticas &#8211; protoporfiria eritropoy&#233;tica &#40;PPE&#41; y porfiria eritropoy&#233;tica cong&#233;nita &#40;PEC&#41; -&#44; que han dado lugar a una nueva concepci&#243;n de las mismas como enfermedades no monog&#233;nicas&#46; Se han identificado mutaciones en nuevos genes como responsables o modificadores de la gravedad de la porfiria&#44; permitiendo esclarecer las discrepancias geno-fenot&#237;picas observadas entre pacientes portadores de las mismas mutaciones&#44; as&#237; como identificar el defecto gen&#233;tico responsable de algunos casos de porfiria en los que los estudios moleculares del gen <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">uroporfirin&#243;geno sintetasa</span> &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">UROS</span>&#41; en la PEC o del gen <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ferroquelatasa</span> &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">FECH</span>&#41; en la PPE&#44; no identificaban ninguna mutaci&#243;n&#46; La mejor caracterizaci&#243;n y conocimiento de la gen&#233;tica de estas enfermedades permitir&#225; establecer cuadros geno-fenot&#237;picos concretos y realizar una clasificaci&#243;n molecular con implicaciones pr&#225;cticas y pron&#243;sticas&#46;</p>"
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        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara">Please cite this article as&#58; Darwich E&#44; Herrero C&#46; Novedades en las porfirias eritropoy&#233;ticas&#46; Actas Dermosifiliogr&#46; 2013&#59;104&#58;212&#8211;9&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Classification of the porphyrias&#46; CoA indicates coenzyme A&#59; ALADD&#44; porphyria arising from aminolevulinate dehydratase deficiency&#59; AIP&#44; acute intermittent porphyria&#59; CEP&#44; congenital erythropoietic porphyria&#59; UP I&#44; uroporphyrin I&#59; LCP&#44; late cutaneous porphyria&#59; HEP&#44; hepatoerythropoietic porphyria&#59; CP I&#44; coporphyrin isomer I&#59; HCP&#44; hereditary coproporphyria&#59; VP&#44; variegate porphyria&#59; EPP&#58; erythropoietic protoporphyria&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Male patient with a mild form of congenital erythropoietic protoporphyria&#46; Note hypertrichosis is the only sign of the disease&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">A&#44; Yellowish coloration of the teeth of a child with congenital erythropoietic porphyria&#46; B&#44; Red fluorescence &#40;erythrodontia&#41; can be readily observed under Wood light&#46;</p>"
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  "PDF" => "https://static.elsevier.es/multimedia/15782190/0000010400000003/v1_201304241622/S1578219013000346/v1_201304241622/en/main.pdf?idApp=UINPBA000044&text.app=https://actasdermo.org/"
  "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S1578219013000346?idApp=UINPBA000044"
]

Article information

ISSN: 15782190
Original language: English

DOI:10.1016/j.adengl.2011.12.011

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Year/Month	Html	Pdf	Total

2024 November	20	9	29
2024 October	95	47	142
2024 September	112	36	148
2024 August	148	59	207
2024 July	117	39	156
2024 June	127	68	195
2024 May	120	45	165
2024 April	115	30	145
2024 March	121	39	160
2024 February	99	35	134
2024 January	108	51	159
2023 December	180	24	204
2023 November	105	34	139
2023 October	91	46	137
2023 September	106	41	147
2023 August	96	38	134
2023 July	113	65	178
2023 June	92	45	137
2023 May	117	55	172
2023 April	194	48	242
2023 March	156	36	192
2023 February	120	35	155
2023 January	129	35	164
2022 December	110	44	154
2022 November	112	36	148
2022 October	95	37	132
2022 September	105	36	141
2022 August	62	35	97
2022 July	112	52	164
2022 June	64	25	89
2022 May	129	49	178
2022 April	159	26	185
2022 March	134	64	198
2022 February	129	30	159
2022 January	187	44	231
2021 December	118	60	178
2021 November	101	42	143
2021 October	138	62	200
2021 September	107	52	159
2021 August	108	25	133
2021 July	60	35	95
2021 June	108	21	129
2021 May	109	38	147
2021 April	287	59	346
2021 March	132	32	164
2021 February	109	28	137
2021 January	79	21	100
2020 December	77	11	88
2020 November	43	22	65
2020 October	60	24	84
2020 September	57	11	68
2020 August	36	22	58
2020 July	26	24	50
2020 June	48	27	75
2020 May	25	22	47
2020 April	37	26	63
2020 March	29	22	51
2020 February	4	5	9
2020 January	1	5	6
2019 December	6	7	13
2019 November	1	7	8
2019 October	1	6	7
2019 September	9	6	15
2019 August	2	11	13
2019 July	0	11	11
2019 June	2	33	35
2019 May	4	24	28
2019 April	0	15	15
2019 March	1	12	13
2019 February	3	5	8
2019 January	1	0	1
2018 December	3	0	3
2018 November	2	0	2
2018 September	4	0	4
2018 March	18	1	19
2018 February	107	9	116
2018 January	135	11	146
2017 December	150	5	155
2017 November	142	10	152
2017 October	145	7	152
2017 September	112	5	117
2017 August	84	10	94
2017 July	132	7	139
2017 June	167	13	180
2017 May	97	9	106
2017 April	66	7	73
2017 March	51	12	63
2017 February	139	7	146
2017 January	117	8	125
2016 December	133	4	137
2016 November	192	11	203
2016 October	220	16	236
2016 September	248	20	268
2016 August	240	9	249
2016 July	103	17	120
2016 June	5	12	17
2016 May	6	25	31
2016 April	4	9	13
2016 March	3	2	5
2016 February	6	5	11
2016 January	8	0	8
2015 December	11	0	11
2015 November	10	2	12
2015 October	9	1	10
2015 September	9	3	12
2015 August	11	1	12
2015 July	203	135	338
2015 June	130	11	141
2015 May	178	15	193
2015 April	203	16	219
2015 March	195	1	196
2015 February	168	7	175
2015 January	112	1	113
2014 December	129	5	134
2014 November	112	6	118
2014 October	140	4	144
2014 September	100	1	101
2014 August	99	2	101
2014 July	82	6	88
2014 June	102	5	107
2014 May	102	5	107
2014 April	92	5	97
2014 March	90	10	100
2014 February	90	8	98
2014 January	61	6	67
2013 December	60	14	74
2013 November	69	3	72
2013 October	49	5	54
2013 September	43	7	50
2013 August	32	2	34
2013 July	6	4	10
2013 June	7	5	12
2013 May	8	14	22
2013 April	2	4	6

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